Afghanistan
On 13 January 1493, Columbus made his last stop of this voyage in the New World. He landed on the Samaná Peninsula, where he met the hostile Ciguayos who presented him with his only violent resistance during his first voyage to the Americas. ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
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The Ciguayos had refused to trade the amount of bows and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing violence two were stabbed to death.[48] Because of this and because of the Ciguayos' use of arrows, he called the inlet where he met them the Bay of Arrows (or Gulf of Arrows).[53] HP Mini 1199ez Laptop Keyboard
Today, the place is called the Bay of Rincón, in Samaná, the Dominican Republic.[54] Columbus kidnapped about 10 to 25 natives and took them back with him (only seven or eight of the native Indians arrived in Spain alive, but they made quite an impression onSeville).[55] SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard
Columbus left the port of Cadiz on 24 September 1493, with a fleet of 17 ships carrying 1,200 men and the supplies to establish permanent colonies in the New World. The passengers included priests, farmers, and soldiers, who would be the new colonists. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
This reflected the new policy of creating not just "colonies of exploitation", but also "colonies of settlement" from which to launch missions dedicated to converting the natives to Christianity.[56] Modern studies suggest that, as reported by the Washington Post, "crew members may have included free black Africans who arrived in the New World about a decade before the slave trade began."[57] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
As in the first voyage, the fleet stopped at the Canary Islands, from which it departed on 13 October, following a more southerly course than on the previous expedition. On 3 November, Columbus sighted a rugged island that he named Dominica(Latin for Sunday); later that day, he landed at Marie-Galante, TOSHIBA P000484960 Laptop Keyboard
which he named Santa María la Galante. After sailing past Les Saintes (Los Santos, "The Saints"), he arrived at the island ofGuadeloupe, which he named Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, inGuadalupe, Cáceres, Spain. He explored that island from 4 to 10 November. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
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Michele da Cuneo, Columbus' childhood friend from Savona, sailed with Columbus during the second voyage and wrote: "In my opinion, since Genoa was Genoa, there was never born a man so well equipped and expert in the art of navigation as the said lord Admiral."[58] Columbus named the small island of "Saona ... TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
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to honor Michele da Cuneo, his friend from Savona."[59]
The same childhood friend reported in a letter that Columbus had provided one of the captured indigenous women to him. He wrote, "While I was in the boat, I captured a very beautiful Carib woman, DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard
whom the said Lord Admiral gave to me. When I had taken her to my cabin she was naked—as was their custom. I was filled with a desire to take my pleasure with her and attempted to satisfy my desire. TOSHIBA P000484960 Laptop Keyboard
She was unwilling, and so treated me with her nails that I wished I had never begun. But—to cut a long story short—I then took a piece of rope and whipped her soundly, and she let forth such incredible screams that you would not have believed your ears. Eventually we came to such terms, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
I assure you, that you would have thought that she had been brought up in a school for whores."[60] This letter has been interpreted by some as providing evidence that Columbus knowingly aided the rape of captured indigenous people.[61] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
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Pedro de las Casas, father of the priest Bartolomé de las Casas, also accompanied Columbus on this voyage.[62]
Columbus also sighted the chain of the Virgin Islands, which he named Islas de Santa Úrsula y las Once Mil Vírgenes, "Islands of Saint Ursula and the 11,000 Virgins" (shortened, both on maps of the time and in common parlance, to Islas Vírgenes). He also named the islands of Virgin Gorda ("Fat Virgin"), Tortola, and Peter Island (San Pedro). ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
He continued to the Greater Antilles, and landed in Puerto Rico, which he named San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist (a name that was later retained only for the capital city of San Juan). One of the first skirmishes between native Americans and Europeans since the time of the Vikings[63] occurred when Columbus's men rescued two boys who had just been castrated by their captors. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
On 22 November, Columbus returned to Hispaniola, where he intended to visit the fort of La Navidad, built during his first voyage and located on the northern coast of Haiti. Columbus found the fort in ruins, destroyed by the native Taino people.[64] Among the ruins were the corpses of 11 of the 39 Spaniards who had stayed behind as the first colonists in the New World. DELL JVT97 Laptop Keyboard
In retaliation for the attack on La Navidad, Columbus demanded that each Taino over 14 years of age deliver a hawk's bell full of gold powder every three months or, when this was lacking, twenty-five pounds of spun cotton. If this tribute was not delivered, the Taínos had their hands cut off and were left to bleed to death. SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard
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Columbus then sailed more than 100 kilometers eastwards along the northern coast of Hispaniola, establishing a new settlement, which he called La Isabela, in the present-day Dominican Republic.[65] However, La Isabela proved to be poorly located and the settlement was short-lived. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
Columbus left Hispaniola on 24 April 1494, arriving at Cuba (which he named Juana) on 30 April. He explored the southern coast of Cuba, which he believed to be part of a peninsula attached to mainland Asia, SONY VAIO VGN-NW125J/T laptop keyboard
as well as several nearby islands, including the Isle of Pines (which he named La Evangelista, "The Evangelist"). He reached Jamaica on 5 May.[citation needed] He retraced his route to Hispaniola, arriving on 20 August, before he finally returned to Spain. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
On 30 May 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain, for his third trip to the New World. Three of the ships headed directly for Hispaniola with much-needed supplies, while Columbus took the other three in an exploration of what might lie to the south of the Caribbean islands he had already visited, including a hope-for passage to continental Asia.[66] HP Pavilion DV8301NR laptop keyboard
Columbus led his fleet to the Portuguese island of Porto Santo, his wife's native land. He then sailed to Madeira and spent some time there with the Portuguese captain João Gonçalves da Camara, before sailing to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde. HP Pavilion DV7-3060us laptop keyboard
As he crossed the Atlantic, Columbus discovered that the angle between North as indicated by a magnetic compass and North as measured by the position of the pole star changed with his position (a phenomenon now known as "compass variation"). He would later use his previous measurements of the compass variation to adjust his reckoning.[3] Packard Bell PEW71 laptop keyboard
After being becalmed for several days in the doldrums of the mid-Atlantic, Columbus' fleet regained its wind and, dangerously low on water, turned north in the direction of Dominica, which Columbus had visited in his previous voyage. SONY VAIO VGN-FS515E laptop keyboard
The ships landed on the southern coast of the island of Trinidad on 31 July. After resupplying with food and water, from 4 to 12 August Columbus explored the Gulf of Paria, which separates Trinidad from what is nowVenezuela, near the delta of the Orinoco River. He then touched the mainland of South America at the Paria Peninsula. SONY VAIO VGN-CR Series laptop keyboard
Columbus correctly interpreted the enormous quantity of fresh water that the Orinoco delivered into the Atlantic Ocean as evidence that he had reached a continental landmass. As he sailed the Gulf of Paria DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
he observed the diurnal rotation of the pole star in the sky, which he erroneously interpreted as evidence that the Earth was not perfectly spherical, but rather bulged out like a pear around the new-found continent.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
He also speculated that the new continent might be the location of the biblical Garden of Eden. He then sailed to the islands of Chacachacare and Margarita. He sighted Tobago (which he named "Bella Forma") and Grenada (which he named "Concepción"). ACER PK1306F0200 laptop keyboard
In poor health, Columbus returned to Hispaniola on 19 August, only to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were in rebellion against his rule, claiming that Columbus had misled them about the supposedly bountiful riches of the New World. HP Pavilion dv6-2173cl laptop keyboard
A number of returning settlers and sailors lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers of gross mismanagement. Columbus had some of his crew hanged for disobedience. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S laptop keyboard
He had an economic interest in the enslavement of the Hispaniola natives and for that reason was not eager to baptize them, which attracted criticism from some churchmen.[67] An entry in his journal from September 1498 reads: "From here one might send, in the name of the Holy Trinity, as many slaves as could be sold ..." HP Pavilion dv6-2145eo laptop keyboard
Columbus was eventually forced to make peace with the rebellious colonists on humiliating terms.[68] In 1500, the Crown had him removed as governor, arrested, and transported in chains to Spain (see "Accusations of tyranny and genocide during governorship" section below). He was eventually freed and allowed to return to the New World, but not as governor. HP COMPAQ 486654-001 laptop keyboard
Before leaving for his fourth voyage, Columbus wrote a letter to the Governors of the Bank of St. George, Genoa, dated at Seville, 2 April 1502.[69] He wrote "Although my body is here my heart is always near you."[70] HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Columbus made a fourth voyage nominally in search of the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his 13-year-old son Fernando, he left Cadiz on 11 May 1502, TOSHIBA P000484960 laptop keyboard
with his flagship Santa María and the vessels Gallega, Vizcaína, and Santiago de Palos. He sailed to Arzila on the Moroccan coast to rescue Portuguese soldiers whom he had heard were under siege by the Moors. ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
On 15 June they landed at Carbet on the island of Martinique (Martinica). Ahurricane was brewing, so he continued on, hoping to find shelter onHispaniola. He arrived at Santo Domingo on 29 June but was denied port, and the new governor refused to listen to his storm prediction. Instead, while Columbus' ships sheltered at the mouth of the Rio Jaina, the first Spanish treasure fleet sailed into the hurricane. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Columbus' ships survived with only minor damage, while 29 of the 30 ships in the governor's fleet were lost to the 1 July storm. In addition to the ships, 500 lives (including that of the governor, Francisco de Bobadilla) and an immense cargo of gold were surrendered to the sea. ACER Aspire 8935G Laptop Keyboard
After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to Central America, arriving at Guanaja (Isla de Pinos) in the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras on 30 July. Here Bartolomeo found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as "long as a galley" and was filled with cargo. On 14 August he landed on the continental mainland at Puerto Castilla, HP 496878-001 Laptop Keyboard
near Trujillo, Honduras. He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, before arriving in Almirante Bay in Panama on 16 October.
On 5 December 1502, Columbus and his crew found themselves in a storm unlike any they had ever experienced. In his journal Columbus writes, HP G61-420CA Laptop Keyboard
For nine days I was as one lost, without hope of life. Eyes never beheld the sea so angry, so high, so covered with foam. The wind not only prevented our progress, but offered no opportunity to run behind any headland for shelter; HP Mini 210-1000EW Laptop Keyboard
hence we were forced to keep out in this bloody ocean, seething like a pot on a hot fire. Never did the sky look more terrible; for one whole day and night it blazed like a furnace, and the lightning broke with such violence that each time I wondered if it had carried off my spars and sails; the flashes came with such fury and frightfulness that we all thought that the ship would be blasted. All this time the water never ceased to fall from the sky; I do not say it rained, for it was like another deluge. The men were so worn out that they longed for death to end their dreadful suffering.[71]
In Panama, Columbus learned from the Ngobe of gold and a strait to another ocean, but was told by local leader Quibíannot to go past a certain point down the river. After much exploration, in January 1503 he established a garrison at the mouth of the Belén River. On 6 April one of the ships became stranded in the river. HP G62-367DX Laptop Keyboard
At the same time, the garrison was attacked by Quibían and the other ships were damaged. Shipworms also damaged the ships in tropical waters.[72]
Columbus left for Hispaniola on 16 April heading north. On 10 May he sighted the Cayman Islands, naming them "Las Tortugas" SONY VGN-FE790G/N laptop keyboard
after the numerous sea turtles there. His ships next sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel farther, on 25 June 1503 they were beached in St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica. DELL Vostro 1700 laptop keyboard
For one year Columbus and his men remained stranded on Jamaica. A Spaniard, Diego Méndez, and some natives paddled acanoe to get help from Hispaniola. The governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
In the meantime Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, successfully won their favor by predicting a lunar eclipse for 29 February 1504, using Abraham Zacuto's astronomical charts.[73][74][75] Help finally arrived, no thanks to the governor, on 29 June 1504, and Columbus and his men arrived in Sanlúcar, Spain, on 7 November. ASUS A6J laptop keyboard
Accusations of tyranny and genocide during governorship
Following his first voyage, Columbus was appointed Viceroy and Governor of the Indies under the terms of the Capitulations of Santa Fe. In practice, this primarily entailed the administration of the colonies in the island of Hispaniola, whose capital was established in Santo Domingo. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
By the end of his third voyage, Columbus was physically and mentally exhausted: his body was wracked by arthritis and his eyes by ophthalmia. In October 1499, he sent two ships to Spain, asking the Court of Spain to appoint a royal commissioner to help him govern. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
By this time, accusations of tyranny and incompetence on the part of Columbus had also reached the Court. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand responded by removing Columbus from power and replacing him with Francisco de Bobadilla, a member of the Order of Calatrava. HP Pavilion DV8210US laptop keyboard
Bobadilla, who ruled as governor from 1500 until his death in a storm in 1502, had also been tasked by the Court with investigating the accusations of brutality made against Columbus. Arriving in Santo Domingo while Columbus was away in the explorations of his Third voyage, Bobadilla was immediately met with complaints about all three Columbus brothers: Lenovo 3000 Y500 7761 laptop keyboard
Christopher, Bartolomé, and Diego. A recently discovered report by de Bobadilla alleges that Columbus regularly used tortureand mutilation to govern Hispaniola. The 48-page report, found in 2006 in the state archive in the Spanish city of Valladolid, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
contains testimonies from 23 people, including both enemies and supporters of Columbus, about Columbus and his brothers' treatment of colonial subjects during his seven-year rule.[76]
According to the report, Columbus once punished a man found guilty of stealing corn by having his ears and nose cut off and then selling him into slavery. HP Pavilion DV7-3124tx laptop keyboard
Testimony recorded in the report claims that Columbus congratulated his brother Bartolomé on "defending the family" when the latter ordered a woman paraded naked through the streets and then had her tongue cut out for suggesting that Columbus was of lowly birth.[76] ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
The document also describes how Columbus put down native unrest and revolt; he first ordered a brutal crackdown in which many natives were killed and then paraded their dismembered bodies through the streets in an attempt to discourage further rebellion.[77] HP Pavilion dv5-1020et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"Columbus's government was characterised by a form of tyranny," Consuelo Varela, a Spanish historian who has seen the document, told journalists.[76] "Even those who loved him [Columbus] had to admit the atrocities that had taken place."[76] HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, more coalition troops entered the escalating US-led war. HP Pavilion dv5030 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Meanwhile, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in 2002.[151][152] The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years, and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture. HP Pavilion dv5-1020et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
NATO is training the Afghan armed forces as well its national police. ISAF and Afghan troopsled many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them. By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court.[153] Compaq Presario CQ61-416EG Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
After US President Barack Obama announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, Der Spiegel published images of the US soldiers who killed unarmed Afghan civilians.[154] HP 532614-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
At the 2010 International Conference on Afghanistan in London, Afghan President Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (including Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar). HP MCF-W13BM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Supported by NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting to initiate peace talks. These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings, assassinations and ambushes.[155] Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligence chief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. HP Pavilion dv5-1174ca Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Abdullah Abdullah) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the democratic constitution, the democratic process and progress in the field of human rights especially women's rights.[156] Dr. Abdullah stated: HP Pavilion dv7-3050ec Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I should say that Taliban are not fighting to be accommodated. They are fighting to bring the state down. So it's a futile exercise, and it's just misleading. ... There are groups that will fight to the death. Whether we like to talk to them or we don't like to talk to them, they will continue to fight. So, for them, HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I don't think that we have a way forward with talks or negotiations or contacts or anything as such. Then we have to be prepared to tackle and deal with them militarily. In terms of the Taliban on the ground, there are lots of possibilities and opportunities that with the help of the people in different parts of the country, we can attract them to the peace process; provided, HP G56-118CA Laptop Keyboard
we create a favorable environment on this side of the line. At the moment, the people are leaving support for the government because of corruption. So that expectation is also not realistic at this stage.[157] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
Over five million Afghan refugees were repatriated in the last decade, including many who were forcefully deported fromNATO countries.[158][159] This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Taliban insurgency.[160][161] According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009,[162] TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard
75% in 2010,[28] 80% in 2011, 80% in 2012.[163] In 2011, a record 3,021 civilians were killed in the ongoing insurgency, the fifth successive annual rise.[164]
began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmed Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and others.[27] ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard
Also in the same year, the Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishesintensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based Haqqani Network took place across Afghanistan. This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.[166] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The United States blamed Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistan Army and its ISI spy network as the masterminds behind all of this.[26]
In choosing to use violent extremism as an instrument of policy, the government of Pakistan, FUJITSU Lifebook E8310 Laptop Keyboard
and most especially the Pakistani army and ISI, jeopardizes not only the prospect of our strategic partnership but Pakistan's opportunity to be a respected nation with legitimate regional influence. They may believe that by using these proxies, they are hedging their bets or redressing what they feel is an imbalance in regional power. But in reality, they have already lost that bet.[167] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard
—Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
US Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that "The attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, ACER Aspire 7745G Laptop Keyboard
that was the work of the Haqqani Network. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is something that must stop."[168] Other top US officials such asHillary Clinton and Leon Panetta made similar statements.[26][169] HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
On 16 October 2011, "Operation Knife Edge" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani Network in south-eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister, Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier".[170] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
In anticipation of the 2014 NATO withdrawal and a subsequent expected push to regain power by the Taliban, the anti-Taliban United Front (Northern Alliance) groups have started to regroup under the umbrella of the National Coalition of Afghanistan (political arm) and the National Front of Afghanistan (military arm).[171][172] HP Pavilion dv5-1233se laptop keyboard
Afghanistan is an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, executive, legislative and judicial. The nation is currently led by Hamid Karzai as the President and leader since late 2001. The National Assembly is the legislature, abicameral body having two chambers, the House of the People and the House of Elders. HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
The Supreme Court is led by Chief Justice Abdul Salam Azimi, a former university professor who had been a legal advisor to the president.[173] The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous one, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 laptop keyboard
which was dominated by fundamentalist religious figures such as Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari who issued several controversial rulings, including seeking to place a limit on the rights of women. HP Pavilion dv6-2019er Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
According to Transparency International's corruption perceptions index 2010 results, Afghanistan was ranked as the third most-corrupt country in the world.[174] A January 2010 report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimerevealed that bribery consumes an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the nation.[175] HP Pavilion dv6-3126ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A number of government ministries are believed to be rife with corruption, and while President Karzai vowed to tackle the problem in late 2009 by stating that "individuals who are involved in corruption will have no place in the government",[176] HP 532613-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
top government officials were stealing and misusing hundreds of millions of dollars through the Kabul Bank. Although the nation's institutions are newly formed and steps have been taken to arrest some,[177] the United States warned that aid to Afghanistan would be reduced to very little if the corruption is not stopped.[178] HP Pavilion dv6-3300ss Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The 2004 Afghan presidential election was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes. However, the 2009 presidential election was characterized by lack of security, low voter turnout and widespread electoral fraud.[179][180] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad W500 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The vote, along with elections for 420 provincial council seats, took place in August 2009, but remained unresolved during a lengthy period of vote counting and fraud investigation.[181]
Two months later, under international pressure, a second round run-off vote between Karzai and remaining challenger Abdullahwas announced, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
but a few days later Abdullah announced that he is not participating in the 7 November run-off because his demands for changes in the electoral commission had not been met. The next day, officials of the election commission cancelled the run-off and declared Hamid Karzai as President for another 5-year term.[180] HP Pavilion dv5-1020et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In the 2005 parliamentary election, among the elected officials were former mujahideen, Islamic fundamentalists, warlords, communists, reformists, and several Taliban associates.[182] In the same period, Afghanistan reached to the 30th nation in terms of female representation in parliament.[183] HP Pavilion dv5030 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The last parliamentary election was held in September 2010, but due to disputes and investigation of fraud, the sworn in ceremony took place in late January 2011. After the issuance of computerized ID cards for the first time, Compaq Presario CQ61-416EG Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
which is a $101 million project that the Afghan government plans to start in 2012, it is expected to help prevent major fraud in future elections and improve the security situation.[184]
Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayats), with each province having its own capital and a provincial administration. HP 532614-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The provinces are further divided into about 398 smaller provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or a number of villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.
The provincial governors are appointed by the President of Afghanistan and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
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The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils which are elected through direct and general elections for a period of four years.[185] SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard
The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
However, due to huge election costs, mayoral and municipal elections have never been held. Instead, mayors have been appointed by the government. As for the capital city of Kabul, the mayor is appointed by the President of Afghanistan. HP Pavilion dv6-3133eo laptop keyboard
The Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for managing the foreign relations of Afghanistan. The nation has been a member of the UN since 1946, and has maintained good relations with the United States and other NATO member states since the signing of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty in 1919. HP Pavilion dv4-1133tx laptop keyboard
The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established in 2002 under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401 to help the nation recover from decades of war and establish a normal functioning government. SONY VAIO VGN-NW11S/S laptop keyboard
Today, more than 22 NATO nations deploy about 100,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force(ISAF). Apart from close military links, the country also enjoys strong economic relations with NATO members and their allies. It also has diplomatic relations with neighboring Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, HP G62-a33EO laptop keyboard
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, the People's Republic of China, including regional states such as India, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Russia, United Arab Emirate, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Japan, South Korea, and others. DELL V119525BS1 laptop keyboard
Afghanistan–Pakistan relations have been negatively affected by issues related to the Durand Line, the 1978–present war(i.e. Mujahideen, Afghan refugees, Taliban insurgency, and border skirmishes), including water and the growing influence of India in Afghanistan.[186][187] SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S laptop keyboard
Afghan officials often allege that Pakistani and Iranian intelligence agencies are involved in terrorist attacks inside Afghanistan, by training and guiding terrorists to carry out attacks.[188][189][190] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ640 laptop keyboard
Afghanistan has always depended on Pakistani trade routes for import and export but this has changed in the last decade with the opening of Central Asian and Iranian routes.[191] Conversely, Pakistan depends onAfghan water and considers Afghanistan as the only trade route to Central Asian resources.[192] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
India and Iran have actively participated in reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan,[193] with India being the largest regional donor to the country.[194] Since 2002, India has pledged up to $2 billion in economic assistance to Afghanistan and has participated in multiple socio-economic reconstruction efforts, including power, roads, TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
agricultural and educational projects.[194][195] There are also military ties between Afghanistan and India, which is expected to increase after the October 2011 strategic pact that was signed by President Karzai and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.[196][197] HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
The Afghan Armed Forces are under the Ministry of Defense, which includes the Afghan National Army (ANA) and the Afghan Air Force (AAF). It currently has about 200,000 active soldiers and is expected to reach 260,000 in the coming years. HP Pavilion dm1-1002tu laptop keyboard
They are trained and equipped by NATO countries, mainly by the United States Department of Defense. The ANA is divided into 7 major Corps, with the 201st Selab ("Flood") in Kabul followed by the 203rd in Gardez, 205th Atul ("Hero") in Kandahar, 207th in Herat, 209th in Mazar-i-Sharif and the 215th in Lashkar Gah. HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
The ANA also has a commando brigade which was established in 2007. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan serves as the main educational institute for the militarymen of the country. A new $200 million Afghan Defense University (ADU) is under construction near the capital. HP Pavilion dm1-1002tu laptop keyboard
The National Directorate of Security (NDS) is the nation's domestic intelligence agency, which operates similar to that of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and has between 15,000 to 30,000 employees. Compaq Presario CQ61-216TU Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The nation also has about 126,000 national police officers, with plans to recruit more so that the total number can reach 160,000.[198] TheAfghan National Police (ANP) is under the Ministry of the Interior and serves as a single law enforcement agency all across the country. Toshiba Satellite A215-S5802 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Afghan National Civil Order Police is the main branch of the ANP, which is divided into five Brigades and each one commanded by a Brigadier General. These brigades are stationed in Kabul, Gardez, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-i-Sharif. Toshiba Satellite A210-1BC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Every province has an appointed provincial Chief of Police who is responsible for law enforcement in all the districts within his province.
The police receive most training from Western forces under the NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan. According to a 2009 news report, HP G62-b15EL Laptop Keyboard
a large proportion of police officers were illiterate and accused of demanding bribes.[199] Jack Kem, deputy to the commander of NATO Training Mission Afghanistan and Combined Security Transition Command Afghanistan, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
stated that the literacy rate in the ANP will rise to over 50% by January 2012. What began as a voluntary literacy program became mandatory for basic police training in early 2011.[198] Approximately 17% of them tested positive for illegal drug use. HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev Laptop Keyboard
In 2009, President Karzai created two anti-corruption units within the Interior Ministry.[200] Former Interior Minister Hanif Atmar said that security officials from the US (FBI), Britain (Scotland Yard) and the European Union will train prosecutors in the unit. HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
The south and eastern parts of Afghanistan are the most dangerous due to militant activities and the flourishing drug trade. These particular areas are sometimes patrolled by Taliban insurgents, who often plant improvised explosive devices (IEDs) HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
on roads and carry out suicide bombings. Kidnapping and robberies are also reported. Every year many Afghan police officers are killed in the line of duty in these areas. The Afghan Border Police (ABP) are responsible for protecting the nation's airports and borders, HP Mini 110-3519la Laptop Keyboard
especially the disputed Durand Line border which is often used by members of criminal organizations and terrorists for their illegal activities. A report in 2011 suggested that up to 3 million people were involved in the illegal drug business in Afghanistan. ASUS F80Q Laptop Keyboard
Many of the attacks on government employees may be ordered by powerful mafia groups. Drugs from Afghanistan make its way to neighboring and others countries. The Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics is tasked to deal with these issues by bringing to justice major drug traffickers.[201] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
Afghanistan is an impoverished and least developed country, one of the world's poorest because of decades of war and lack of foreign investment. As of 2012, the nation's GDP stands at about $34.29 billion with an exchange rate of $19.91 billion, and the GDP per capita is $1,100. The country's export was $2.6 billion in 2010. HP G62-b20SS Laptop Keyboard
Its unemployment rate is about 35% and roughly the same percentage of its citizens live below the poverty line.[3] About 42% of the population live on less than $1 a day, according to a 2009 report.[202] The nation has less than $1.5 billion external debt and is recovering by the assistance of the world community.[3] ASUS A3000E Laptop Keyboard
The Afghan economy has been growing at about 10% per year in the last decade, which is due to the infusion of over $50 billion in international aid and remittances from Afghan expats.[3] It is also due to improvements made to the transportation system and agricultural production, which is the backbone of the nation's economy.[203] ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard
The country is known for producing some of the finest pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits, including nuts.[204]
While the nations's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard
The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. The Afghan Ministry of Finance is focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 Laptop Keyboard
For example, government revenues increased 31% to $1.7 billion from March 2010 to March 2011.
Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the "Afghani" (AFN) is the national currency, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
with an exchange rate of about 47 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. Since 2003, over 16 new banks have opened in the country, includingAfghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, First Micro Finance Bank, and others. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. For the first time since the 1970s, Afghans have involved themselves in construction, one of the largest industries in the country.[205] HP 489126-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 bn New Kabul City next to the capital, the Ghazi Amanullah Khan City near Jalalabad, and the Aino Mena in Kandahar.[206][207][208] Similar development projects have also begun in Herat in the west,Mazar-e-Sharif in the north and in other cities.[209] DELL Inspiron E1405 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In addition, a number of companies and small factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business-enabling environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.[210] DELL DFS541305MH0T Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
TheAfghan rugs are becoming popular again and this gives many carpet dealers around the country to expand their business by hiring more workers.
Afghanistan is a member of SAARC, ECO and OIC. It is hoping to join SCO soon to develop closer economic ties with neighboring and regional countries in the so-called New Silk Road trade project. HP G62-341NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Foreign MinisterZalmai Rassoul told the media in 2011 that his nation's "goal is to achieve an Afghan economy whose growth is based on trade, private enterprise and investment".[211] Experts believe that this will revolutionize the economy of the region. HP Pavilion dv6648el Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Opium production in Afghanistan soared to a record in 2007 with about 3 million people reported to be involved in the business[212]but then declined significantly in the years following.[213] The government started programs to help reduce cultivation of poppy, and by 2010 it was reported that 24 out of the 34 provinces were free from poppy grow. HP Pavilion dv7-6151ed Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In June 2012, India advocated for private investments in the resource rich country and creation of suitable environment therefor.[214]
Michael O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution explains that if Afghanistan generates about $10 bn per year from its mineral deposits, Toshiba Satellite P100-386 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
its gross national productwould double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs.[215] The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average 2.9 billion (bn) barrels (bbl) of crude oil, HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
15.7 trillion cubic feet (440 bn m3) of natural gas, and562 million bbl of natural gas liquids.[216] In December 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.[217] HP G60-230us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other reports show that the country has huge amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore and other minerals.[55][56][218] The Khanashin carbonatite inHelmand Province contains 1,000,000 metric tons (1,100,000 short tons) HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
of rare earth elements.[219] In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for $3 billion,[220] making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.[221] SONY Vaio VPC-EB1E0E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.[222] Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth between $900 bn and $3 trillion.[57][58][59] Compaq Presario CQ70-220EO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".[58][223][224][225] HP Pavilion dv7-3060sb Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In a 2011 news story, the CSM reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers."[226] ACER Aspire 7720 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Afghanistan has about 53 airports, with the biggest ones being the Kabul International Airport, serving the capital and nearby regions followed Kandahar International Airport in the south, Herat International Airport in the west, SONY UDQF2PH52CF0 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
and Mazar-i-Sharif Airport in the north. Ariana Afghan Airlines is the national carrier, with domestic flights between Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. International flights include to United Arab Emirate, Saudi Arabia, Germany, Turkey, India, Iran, Pakistan and a number of other Asian destinations.[227] Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2522 laptop keyboard
There are also domestic and international flight services available from the locally owned Kam Air, Pamir Airways and Safi Airways. Airlines from a number of regional nations such as Turkish Airlines, Gulf Air, Air Arabia, Air India, PIA and others also provide services to Afghanistan. Flights between Dubai and Kabul take roughly 2 hours to reach. SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
The country has limited rail service with Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan in the north. The government plans to extended the rail line to the capital and then to the eastern border town of Torkham by 2014, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
connecting with Pakistan Railways.[228] Long distant road journeys are made by older model company-owned Mercedes-Benz coach buses or carpool and private cars. Newer automobiles have recently become more widely available after the rebuilding of roads and highways. HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev laptop keyboard
They are imported from the United Arab Emirates through Pakistan and Iran. As of 2012, vehicles that are older than 10 years are banned from being imported into the country. The development of the nation's road network is a major boost for the economy due to trade with neighboring countries. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215B laptop keyboard
Afghanistan's postal and package services such as FedEx, DHL and others make deliveries to major cities and towns.
Telecommunication services in the country are provided by Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, Roshan, MTN Group and Afghan Telecom. In 2006, Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a $64.5 million agreement with ZTE for the establishment of a countrywide optical fiber cable network. As of 2011, Afghanistan has around 17 million GSM phone subscribers and over 1 million internet users. HP Mini 110-3519la laptop keyboard
It only has about 75,000 fixed telephone lines and little over 190,000 CDMAsubscribers.[229] 3G services are provided by Etisalat and MTN Group. The Afghan government announced that it will send expressions of interest to international companies to attract funding will launch its first space satellite by October 2012.[230][231][232][233][234][235][needs update] HP Pavilion DV6t-4000 laptop keyboard
According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world. The average life expectancyis estimated to be around 60 years for both sexes.[236] The country has the ninth highest total fertility rate in the world, at 5.64 children born/woman (according to 2012 estimates).[237] ASUS A3000E laptop keyboard
It has one of the highest maternal mortality rate in the world, estimated in 2010 at 460 deaths/100,000 live births,[238] and the highest infant mortality rate in the world (deaths of babies under one year), estimated in 2012 to be 119.41 deaths/1,000 live births.[239] ASUS A6Jc laptop keyboard
Data from 2010 suggests that one in ten children dies before they are five years old.[240] While these statistics are tragic, the Ministry of Public Health plans to further cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020.[241] The country currently has more than 3,000 midwives with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.[242] ASUS A3Ac laptop keyboard
A number of hospitals and clinics have been built over the last decade, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Childrens Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in the country. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
Some of the other main hospitals in Kabul include the 350-bed Jamhuriat Hospital and the Jinnah Hospital, which is still under construction. There are also a number of well-equipped military-controlled hospitals in different regions of the country. FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 laptop keyboard
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the population lives within two hours by foot to the nearest health facility, up from 9% in 2002.[243] Latest surveys show that 57% of Afghans say they have good or very good access to clinics or hospitals.[242] SONY Vaio PCG-K33F laptop keyboard
The nation also has one of the highest incidences of people with disabilities, with an estimated one million handicapped people.[244] About 80,000 citizens have lost limbs, mainly as a result of landmines.[245][246] Non-governmental charities such as Save the Children andMahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures.[247] SONY VAIO VGN-NW350F laptop keyboard
Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the Indian Institute of Health Management Research and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on Maternal death, among other things.[248] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Education in the country includes K–12 and higher education, which is supervised by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education.[249] The nation's education system was destroyed due to the decades of war, HP 580030-001 Laptop Keyboard
but it began reviving after the Karzai administration came to power in late 2001. More than 5,000 schools were built or renovated in the last decade, with more than 100,000 teachers being trained and recruited.[250] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
More than seven million male and female students are enrolled in schools,[250] with about 100,00 being enrolled in different universities around the country, at least 35% are female.[251] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard
As of 2013, there are 16,000 schools across Afghanistan. Education Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak stated that another 8,000 schools are required to be constructed for the remaining 3 million children who are deprived of education.[252] DELL Inspiron 630m Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Kabul University reopened in 2002 to both male and female students. In 2006, the American University of Afghanistan was established in Kabul, with the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, DELL Studio 1458 laptop keyboard
co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan. The capital of Kabul serves as the learning center of Afghanistan, with many of the best educational institutions being based there. Major universities outside of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the northwest, Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
Balkh University in the north, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the eastern zones, as well as a number of others. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled after the United States Military Academy at West Point, SONY VGN-FE11S laptop keyboard
is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the Afghan Armed Forces. The $200 million Afghan Defense University is under construction near Qargha in Kabul. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul and one school in Jalalabad.[250]
Literacy rate of the entire population has been very low but is now rising because more students go to schools.[253] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
In 2010, the United States began establishing a number of Lincoln learning centers in Afghanistan. They are set up to serve as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
Internet connectivity, educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program is to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location.[254][255] The military and national police are also provided with mandatory literacy courses.[253] GATEWAY MX8711 laptop keyboard
In addition to this, Baghch-e-Simsim (based on the American Sesame Street) was launched in late 2011 to help Afghan children learn from preschool and onward.
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Pashto and Dari (Persian) are the official languages of Afghanistan; bilingualism is very common.[1] Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languagessub-family. Persian has always been the prestige language and a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communication. It is the native tongue of the Tajiks, Hazaras, Aimaks and Kizilbash.[269] HP Pavilion dv4-1211tu laptop keyboard
Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many Pashtuns often use Persian and some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto.
Other languages, including Uzbek, Arabic, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi and Nuristani languages (Ashkunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51e 1844 laptop keyboard
Tregami and Kalasha-ala), are the native tongues of minority groups across the country and have official status in the regions where they are widely spoken. Minor languages also include Pamiri(Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Hindko, and Kyrgyz. A small percentage of Afghans are also fluent in Urdu, English, and other languages. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The Afghan culture has been around for over two millennia, tracing record to at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BCE.[279][280] It is mostly a nomadic and tribal society, with different regions of the country having their own tradition, HP G72-b66US laptop keyboard
reflecting the multi-cultural and multi-lingual character of the nation. In the southern and eastern region the people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali, which is an ancient way of life that is still preserved.[281] LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
The remaining of the country is culturally Persian and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in close proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali[282] in a process called Pashtunization (or Afghanization) while some Pashtuns have been Persianized. Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
Millions of Afghans who have been living in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations.
The Afghan mass media began in the early 20th century, with the first newspaper published in 1906. By the 1920s, Radio Kabulwas broadcasting local radio services. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard
Afghanistan National Television was launched in 1974 but was closed in 1996 when the media was tightly controlled by the Taliban.[292] Since 2002, press restrictions were gradually relaxed and private media diversified. COMPAQ Presario CQ40-145TU Laptop Keyboard
Freedom of expression and the press is promoted in the 2004 constitution and censorship is banned, thoughdefaming individuals or producing material contrary to the principles of Islam is prohibited. In 2008, Reporters Without Borders listed the media environment as 156 out of 173, with the 1st being most free. 400 publications were registered, COMPAQ Presario CQ45-214TU laptop keyboard
at least 15 local Afghan television channels and 60 radio stations.[293] Foreign radio stations, such as Voice of America, BBC World Service, and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast into the country. SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
The city of Kabul has been home to many musicians in the past, who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the Nowruz (New Year) and National Independence Day celebrations. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
Ahmad Zahir, Nashenas, Ustad Sarahang,Sarban, Ubaidullah Jan, Farhad Darya, and Naghma are some of the notable Afghan musicians but there are many others.[294]Most Afghans are accustomed to watching Bollywood films from India and listening to its filmi hit songs. Many of the Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including Madhubala, SONY VAIO VGN NR385E/T Laptop Keyboard
Feroz Khan, Kader Khan, Shahrukh Khan, Aamir Khan, Salman Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, Fardeen Khan, Sohail Khan, Celina Jaitley and many others. In addition, several Bollywood films such as Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, Escape from Taliban and Kabul Expresshave been shot inside Afghanistan. HP 634139-001 Laptop Keyboard
Afghans display pride in their culture, nation, ancestry, and above all, their religion and independence. Like other highlanders, they are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
for their high regard for personal honor, for their tribe loyalty and for their readiness to use force to settle disputes.[283] As tribal warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreigners to conquer them. Tony Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, ACER Aspire 7552G Laptop Keyboard
and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.[283] There are an estimated 60 major Pashtun tribes,[284] and the Afghan nomads are estimated at about 2–3 million.[285] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars.[286] DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them date back to the 2nd century.[287][288][289] HP Pavilion DV3506la Laptop Keyboard
This indicates that Buddhism was widespread in Afghanistan. Other historical places include the cities of Herat, Kandahar, Ghazni, Mazar-i-Sharif, and Zarang. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage site. APPLE ibook g4 14 inch Laptop Keyboard
A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's Prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded by Alexander and the first capital of Afghanistan. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction for tourists. In the north of the country is theShrine of Hazrat Ali, believed by many to be the location where Ali was buried. The Afghan Ministry of Information and Culture is renovating 42 historic sites in Ghazni until 2013, HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard
when the province will be declared as the capital of Islamic civilization.[290] The National Museum of Afghanistan is located in Kabul.
Although literacy level is low, classic Persian and Pashto poetry play an important role in the Afghan culture. SONY 148096222 Laptop Keyboard
Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Some notable poets include Rumi, Rabi'a Balkhi, Sanai, Jami, Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili, and Parween Pazhwak.[291] HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard
The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in international football since 1941 and currently has a world ranking of 179. The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by the Afghanistan Football Federation. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E Laptop Keyboard
The national team has never competed or qualified for the FIFA World Cupbut has recently won an international football trophy in the SAFF Championship. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football. HP 517865-031 Laptop Keyboard
Cricket, which is a newly introduced sport in Afghanistan fuelled by the success of the Afghan national cricket team is growing in popularity.[295] Afghanistan participated in the 2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier, 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One, HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard
and 2010 ICC World Twenty20 where they played India and South Africa. It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007, 2009, and 2011. More recently the under-19 team played in the 2012 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup.[296] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 laptop keyboard
The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium serves as the nation's main cricket stadium, HP G61-415SA laptop keyboard
followed by the Kabul National Cricket Stadium. Several other stadiums are under construction.[297] Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces.
Some of the other popular sports in Afghanistan include basketball, volleyball, taekwondo, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
and bodybuilding.[298] Buzkashi is a traditional sport, mainly among the northern Afghans. It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. Afghan Hounds (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was originally used in the sport of hunting. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
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On 13 January 1493, Columbus made his last stop of this voyage in the New World. He landed on the Samaná Peninsula, where he met the hostile Ciguayos who presented him with his only violent resistance during his first voyage to the Americas. ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
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The Ciguayos had refused to trade the amount of bows and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing violence two were stabbed to death.[48] Because of this and because of the Ciguayos' use of arrows, he called the inlet where he met them the Bay of Arrows (or Gulf of Arrows).[53] HP Mini 1199ez Laptop Keyboard
Today, the place is called the Bay of Rincón, in Samaná, the Dominican Republic.[54] Columbus kidnapped about 10 to 25 natives and took them back with him (only seven or eight of the native Indians arrived in Spain alive, but they made quite an impression onSeville).[55] SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard
Columbus left the port of Cadiz on 24 September 1493, with a fleet of 17 ships carrying 1,200 men and the supplies to establish permanent colonies in the New World. The passengers included priests, farmers, and soldiers, who would be the new colonists. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
This reflected the new policy of creating not just "colonies of exploitation", but also "colonies of settlement" from which to launch missions dedicated to converting the natives to Christianity.[56] Modern studies suggest that, as reported by the Washington Post, "crew members may have included free black Africans who arrived in the New World about a decade before the slave trade began."[57] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
As in the first voyage, the fleet stopped at the Canary Islands, from which it departed on 13 October, following a more southerly course than on the previous expedition. On 3 November, Columbus sighted a rugged island that he named Dominica(Latin for Sunday); later that day, he landed at Marie-Galante, TOSHIBA P000484960 Laptop Keyboard
which he named Santa María la Galante. After sailing past Les Saintes (Los Santos, "The Saints"), he arrived at the island ofGuadeloupe, which he named Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, inGuadalupe, Cáceres, Spain. He explored that island from 4 to 10 November. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
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Michele da Cuneo, Columbus' childhood friend from Savona, sailed with Columbus during the second voyage and wrote: "In my opinion, since Genoa was Genoa, there was never born a man so well equipped and expert in the art of navigation as the said lord Admiral."[58] Columbus named the small island of "Saona ... TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
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to honor Michele da Cuneo, his friend from Savona."[59]
The same childhood friend reported in a letter that Columbus had provided one of the captured indigenous women to him. He wrote, "While I was in the boat, I captured a very beautiful Carib woman, DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard
whom the said Lord Admiral gave to me. When I had taken her to my cabin she was naked—as was their custom. I was filled with a desire to take my pleasure with her and attempted to satisfy my desire. TOSHIBA P000484960 Laptop Keyboard
She was unwilling, and so treated me with her nails that I wished I had never begun. But—to cut a long story short—I then took a piece of rope and whipped her soundly, and she let forth such incredible screams that you would not have believed your ears. Eventually we came to such terms, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
I assure you, that you would have thought that she had been brought up in a school for whores."[60] This letter has been interpreted by some as providing evidence that Columbus knowingly aided the rape of captured indigenous people.[61] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
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Pedro de las Casas, father of the priest Bartolomé de las Casas, also accompanied Columbus on this voyage.[62]
Columbus also sighted the chain of the Virgin Islands, which he named Islas de Santa Úrsula y las Once Mil Vírgenes, "Islands of Saint Ursula and the 11,000 Virgins" (shortened, both on maps of the time and in common parlance, to Islas Vírgenes). He also named the islands of Virgin Gorda ("Fat Virgin"), Tortola, and Peter Island (San Pedro). ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
He continued to the Greater Antilles, and landed in Puerto Rico, which he named San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist (a name that was later retained only for the capital city of San Juan). One of the first skirmishes between native Americans and Europeans since the time of the Vikings[63] occurred when Columbus's men rescued two boys who had just been castrated by their captors. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
On 22 November, Columbus returned to Hispaniola, where he intended to visit the fort of La Navidad, built during his first voyage and located on the northern coast of Haiti. Columbus found the fort in ruins, destroyed by the native Taino people.[64] Among the ruins were the corpses of 11 of the 39 Spaniards who had stayed behind as the first colonists in the New World. DELL JVT97 Laptop Keyboard
In retaliation for the attack on La Navidad, Columbus demanded that each Taino over 14 years of age deliver a hawk's bell full of gold powder every three months or, when this was lacking, twenty-five pounds of spun cotton. If this tribute was not delivered, the Taínos had their hands cut off and were left to bleed to death. SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard
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Columbus then sailed more than 100 kilometers eastwards along the northern coast of Hispaniola, establishing a new settlement, which he called La Isabela, in the present-day Dominican Republic.[65] However, La Isabela proved to be poorly located and the settlement was short-lived. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
Columbus left Hispaniola on 24 April 1494, arriving at Cuba (which he named Juana) on 30 April. He explored the southern coast of Cuba, which he believed to be part of a peninsula attached to mainland Asia, SONY VAIO VGN-NW125J/T laptop keyboard
as well as several nearby islands, including the Isle of Pines (which he named La Evangelista, "The Evangelist"). He reached Jamaica on 5 May.[citation needed] He retraced his route to Hispaniola, arriving on 20 August, before he finally returned to Spain. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
On 30 May 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain, for his third trip to the New World. Three of the ships headed directly for Hispaniola with much-needed supplies, while Columbus took the other three in an exploration of what might lie to the south of the Caribbean islands he had already visited, including a hope-for passage to continental Asia.[66] HP Pavilion DV8301NR laptop keyboard
Columbus led his fleet to the Portuguese island of Porto Santo, his wife's native land. He then sailed to Madeira and spent some time there with the Portuguese captain João Gonçalves da Camara, before sailing to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde. HP Pavilion DV7-3060us laptop keyboard
As he crossed the Atlantic, Columbus discovered that the angle between North as indicated by a magnetic compass and North as measured by the position of the pole star changed with his position (a phenomenon now known as "compass variation"). He would later use his previous measurements of the compass variation to adjust his reckoning.[3] Packard Bell PEW71 laptop keyboard
After being becalmed for several days in the doldrums of the mid-Atlantic, Columbus' fleet regained its wind and, dangerously low on water, turned north in the direction of Dominica, which Columbus had visited in his previous voyage. SONY VAIO VGN-FS515E laptop keyboard
The ships landed on the southern coast of the island of Trinidad on 31 July. After resupplying with food and water, from 4 to 12 August Columbus explored the Gulf of Paria, which separates Trinidad from what is nowVenezuela, near the delta of the Orinoco River. He then touched the mainland of South America at the Paria Peninsula. SONY VAIO VGN-CR Series laptop keyboard
Columbus correctly interpreted the enormous quantity of fresh water that the Orinoco delivered into the Atlantic Ocean as evidence that he had reached a continental landmass. As he sailed the Gulf of Paria DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
he observed the diurnal rotation of the pole star in the sky, which he erroneously interpreted as evidence that the Earth was not perfectly spherical, but rather bulged out like a pear around the new-found continent.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
He also speculated that the new continent might be the location of the biblical Garden of Eden. He then sailed to the islands of Chacachacare and Margarita. He sighted Tobago (which he named "Bella Forma") and Grenada (which he named "Concepción"). ACER PK1306F0200 laptop keyboard
In poor health, Columbus returned to Hispaniola on 19 August, only to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were in rebellion against his rule, claiming that Columbus had misled them about the supposedly bountiful riches of the New World. HP Pavilion dv6-2173cl laptop keyboard
A number of returning settlers and sailors lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers of gross mismanagement. Columbus had some of his crew hanged for disobedience. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S laptop keyboard
He had an economic interest in the enslavement of the Hispaniola natives and for that reason was not eager to baptize them, which attracted criticism from some churchmen.[67] An entry in his journal from September 1498 reads: "From here one might send, in the name of the Holy Trinity, as many slaves as could be sold ..." HP Pavilion dv6-2145eo laptop keyboard
Columbus was eventually forced to make peace with the rebellious colonists on humiliating terms.[68] In 1500, the Crown had him removed as governor, arrested, and transported in chains to Spain (see "Accusations of tyranny and genocide during governorship" section below). He was eventually freed and allowed to return to the New World, but not as governor. HP COMPAQ 486654-001 laptop keyboard
Before leaving for his fourth voyage, Columbus wrote a letter to the Governors of the Bank of St. George, Genoa, dated at Seville, 2 April 1502.[69] He wrote "Although my body is here my heart is always near you."[70] HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Columbus made a fourth voyage nominally in search of the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his 13-year-old son Fernando, he left Cadiz on 11 May 1502, TOSHIBA P000484960 laptop keyboard
with his flagship Santa María and the vessels Gallega, Vizcaína, and Santiago de Palos. He sailed to Arzila on the Moroccan coast to rescue Portuguese soldiers whom he had heard were under siege by the Moors. ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
On 15 June they landed at Carbet on the island of Martinique (Martinica). Ahurricane was brewing, so he continued on, hoping to find shelter onHispaniola. He arrived at Santo Domingo on 29 June but was denied port, and the new governor refused to listen to his storm prediction. Instead, while Columbus' ships sheltered at the mouth of the Rio Jaina, the first Spanish treasure fleet sailed into the hurricane. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Columbus' ships survived with only minor damage, while 29 of the 30 ships in the governor's fleet were lost to the 1 July storm. In addition to the ships, 500 lives (including that of the governor, Francisco de Bobadilla) and an immense cargo of gold were surrendered to the sea. ACER Aspire 8935G Laptop Keyboard
After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to Central America, arriving at Guanaja (Isla de Pinos) in the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras on 30 July. Here Bartolomeo found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as "long as a galley" and was filled with cargo. On 14 August he landed on the continental mainland at Puerto Castilla, HP 496878-001 Laptop Keyboard
near Trujillo, Honduras. He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, before arriving in Almirante Bay in Panama on 16 October.
On 5 December 1502, Columbus and his crew found themselves in a storm unlike any they had ever experienced. In his journal Columbus writes, HP G61-420CA Laptop Keyboard
For nine days I was as one lost, without hope of life. Eyes never beheld the sea so angry, so high, so covered with foam. The wind not only prevented our progress, but offered no opportunity to run behind any headland for shelter; HP Mini 210-1000EW Laptop Keyboard
hence we were forced to keep out in this bloody ocean, seething like a pot on a hot fire. Never did the sky look more terrible; for one whole day and night it blazed like a furnace, and the lightning broke with such violence that each time I wondered if it had carried off my spars and sails; the flashes came with such fury and frightfulness that we all thought that the ship would be blasted. All this time the water never ceased to fall from the sky; I do not say it rained, for it was like another deluge. The men were so worn out that they longed for death to end their dreadful suffering.[71]
In Panama, Columbus learned from the Ngobe of gold and a strait to another ocean, but was told by local leader Quibíannot to go past a certain point down the river. After much exploration, in January 1503 he established a garrison at the mouth of the Belén River. On 6 April one of the ships became stranded in the river. HP G62-367DX Laptop Keyboard
At the same time, the garrison was attacked by Quibían and the other ships were damaged. Shipworms also damaged the ships in tropical waters.[72]
Columbus left for Hispaniola on 16 April heading north. On 10 May he sighted the Cayman Islands, naming them "Las Tortugas" SONY VGN-FE790G/N laptop keyboard
after the numerous sea turtles there. His ships next sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel farther, on 25 June 1503 they were beached in St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica. DELL Vostro 1700 laptop keyboard
For one year Columbus and his men remained stranded on Jamaica. A Spaniard, Diego Méndez, and some natives paddled acanoe to get help from Hispaniola. The governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
In the meantime Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, successfully won their favor by predicting a lunar eclipse for 29 February 1504, using Abraham Zacuto's astronomical charts.[73][74][75] Help finally arrived, no thanks to the governor, on 29 June 1504, and Columbus and his men arrived in Sanlúcar, Spain, on 7 November. ASUS A6J laptop keyboard
Accusations of tyranny and genocide during governorship
Following his first voyage, Columbus was appointed Viceroy and Governor of the Indies under the terms of the Capitulations of Santa Fe. In practice, this primarily entailed the administration of the colonies in the island of Hispaniola, whose capital was established in Santo Domingo. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
By the end of his third voyage, Columbus was physically and mentally exhausted: his body was wracked by arthritis and his eyes by ophthalmia. In October 1499, he sent two ships to Spain, asking the Court of Spain to appoint a royal commissioner to help him govern. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
By this time, accusations of tyranny and incompetence on the part of Columbus had also reached the Court. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand responded by removing Columbus from power and replacing him with Francisco de Bobadilla, a member of the Order of Calatrava. HP Pavilion DV8210US laptop keyboard
Bobadilla, who ruled as governor from 1500 until his death in a storm in 1502, had also been tasked by the Court with investigating the accusations of brutality made against Columbus. Arriving in Santo Domingo while Columbus was away in the explorations of his Third voyage, Bobadilla was immediately met with complaints about all three Columbus brothers: Lenovo 3000 Y500 7761 laptop keyboard
Christopher, Bartolomé, and Diego. A recently discovered report by de Bobadilla alleges that Columbus regularly used tortureand mutilation to govern Hispaniola. The 48-page report, found in 2006 in the state archive in the Spanish city of Valladolid, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
contains testimonies from 23 people, including both enemies and supporters of Columbus, about Columbus and his brothers' treatment of colonial subjects during his seven-year rule.[76]
According to the report, Columbus once punished a man found guilty of stealing corn by having his ears and nose cut off and then selling him into slavery. HP Pavilion DV7-3124tx laptop keyboard
Testimony recorded in the report claims that Columbus congratulated his brother Bartolomé on "defending the family" when the latter ordered a woman paraded naked through the streets and then had her tongue cut out for suggesting that Columbus was of lowly birth.[76] ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
The document also describes how Columbus put down native unrest and revolt; he first ordered a brutal crackdown in which many natives were killed and then paraded their dismembered bodies through the streets in an attempt to discourage further rebellion.[77] HP Pavilion dv5-1020et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"Columbus's government was characterised by a form of tyranny," Consuelo Varela, a Spanish historian who has seen the document, told journalists.[76] "Even those who loved him [Columbus] had to admit the atrocities that had taken place."[76] HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, more coalition troops entered the escalating US-led war. HP Pavilion dv5030 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Meanwhile, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in 2002.[151][152] The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years, and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture. HP Pavilion dv5-1020et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
NATO is training the Afghan armed forces as well its national police. ISAF and Afghan troopsled many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them. By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court.[153] Compaq Presario CQ61-416EG Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
After US President Barack Obama announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, Der Spiegel published images of the US soldiers who killed unarmed Afghan civilians.[154] HP 532614-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
At the 2010 International Conference on Afghanistan in London, Afghan President Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (including Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar). HP MCF-W13BM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Supported by NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting to initiate peace talks. These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings, assassinations and ambushes.[155] Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligence chief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. HP Pavilion dv5-1174ca Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Abdullah Abdullah) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the democratic constitution, the democratic process and progress in the field of human rights especially women's rights.[156] Dr. Abdullah stated: HP Pavilion dv7-3050ec Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I should say that Taliban are not fighting to be accommodated. They are fighting to bring the state down. So it's a futile exercise, and it's just misleading. ... There are groups that will fight to the death. Whether we like to talk to them or we don't like to talk to them, they will continue to fight. So, for them, HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I don't think that we have a way forward with talks or negotiations or contacts or anything as such. Then we have to be prepared to tackle and deal with them militarily. In terms of the Taliban on the ground, there are lots of possibilities and opportunities that with the help of the people in different parts of the country, we can attract them to the peace process; provided, HP G56-118CA Laptop Keyboard
we create a favorable environment on this side of the line. At the moment, the people are leaving support for the government because of corruption. So that expectation is also not realistic at this stage.[157] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
Over five million Afghan refugees were repatriated in the last decade, including many who were forcefully deported fromNATO countries.[158][159] This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Taliban insurgency.[160][161] According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009,[162] TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard
75% in 2010,[28] 80% in 2011, 80% in 2012.[163] In 2011, a record 3,021 civilians were killed in the ongoing insurgency, the fifth successive annual rise.[164]
began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmed Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and others.[27] ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard
Also in the same year, the Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishesintensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based Haqqani Network took place across Afghanistan. This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.[166] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The United States blamed Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistan Army and its ISI spy network as the masterminds behind all of this.[26]
In choosing to use violent extremism as an instrument of policy, the government of Pakistan, FUJITSU Lifebook E8310 Laptop Keyboard
and most especially the Pakistani army and ISI, jeopardizes not only the prospect of our strategic partnership but Pakistan's opportunity to be a respected nation with legitimate regional influence. They may believe that by using these proxies, they are hedging their bets or redressing what they feel is an imbalance in regional power. But in reality, they have already lost that bet.[167] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard
—Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
US Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that "The attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, ACER Aspire 7745G Laptop Keyboard
that was the work of the Haqqani Network. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is something that must stop."[168] Other top US officials such asHillary Clinton and Leon Panetta made similar statements.[26][169] HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
On 16 October 2011, "Operation Knife Edge" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani Network in south-eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister, Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier".[170] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
In anticipation of the 2014 NATO withdrawal and a subsequent expected push to regain power by the Taliban, the anti-Taliban United Front (Northern Alliance) groups have started to regroup under the umbrella of the National Coalition of Afghanistan (political arm) and the National Front of Afghanistan (military arm).[171][172] HP Pavilion dv5-1233se laptop keyboard
Afghanistan is an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, executive, legislative and judicial. The nation is currently led by Hamid Karzai as the President and leader since late 2001. The National Assembly is the legislature, abicameral body having two chambers, the House of the People and the House of Elders. HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
The Supreme Court is led by Chief Justice Abdul Salam Azimi, a former university professor who had been a legal advisor to the president.[173] The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous one, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 laptop keyboard
which was dominated by fundamentalist religious figures such as Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari who issued several controversial rulings, including seeking to place a limit on the rights of women. HP Pavilion dv6-2019er Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
According to Transparency International's corruption perceptions index 2010 results, Afghanistan was ranked as the third most-corrupt country in the world.[174] A January 2010 report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimerevealed that bribery consumes an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the nation.[175] HP Pavilion dv6-3126ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A number of government ministries are believed to be rife with corruption, and while President Karzai vowed to tackle the problem in late 2009 by stating that "individuals who are involved in corruption will have no place in the government",[176] HP 532613-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
top government officials were stealing and misusing hundreds of millions of dollars through the Kabul Bank. Although the nation's institutions are newly formed and steps have been taken to arrest some,[177] the United States warned that aid to Afghanistan would be reduced to very little if the corruption is not stopped.[178] HP Pavilion dv6-3300ss Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The 2004 Afghan presidential election was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes. However, the 2009 presidential election was characterized by lack of security, low voter turnout and widespread electoral fraud.[179][180] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad W500 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The vote, along with elections for 420 provincial council seats, took place in August 2009, but remained unresolved during a lengthy period of vote counting and fraud investigation.[181]
Two months later, under international pressure, a second round run-off vote between Karzai and remaining challenger Abdullahwas announced, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
but a few days later Abdullah announced that he is not participating in the 7 November run-off because his demands for changes in the electoral commission had not been met. The next day, officials of the election commission cancelled the run-off and declared Hamid Karzai as President for another 5-year term.[180] HP Pavilion dv5-1020et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In the 2005 parliamentary election, among the elected officials were former mujahideen, Islamic fundamentalists, warlords, communists, reformists, and several Taliban associates.[182] In the same period, Afghanistan reached to the 30th nation in terms of female representation in parliament.[183] HP Pavilion dv5030 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The last parliamentary election was held in September 2010, but due to disputes and investigation of fraud, the sworn in ceremony took place in late January 2011. After the issuance of computerized ID cards for the first time, Compaq Presario CQ61-416EG Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
which is a $101 million project that the Afghan government plans to start in 2012, it is expected to help prevent major fraud in future elections and improve the security situation.[184]
Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayats), with each province having its own capital and a provincial administration. HP 532614-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The provinces are further divided into about 398 smaller provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or a number of villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.
The provincial governors are appointed by the President of Afghanistan and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
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The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils which are elected through direct and general elections for a period of four years.[185] SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard
The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
However, due to huge election costs, mayoral and municipal elections have never been held. Instead, mayors have been appointed by the government. As for the capital city of Kabul, the mayor is appointed by the President of Afghanistan. HP Pavilion dv6-3133eo laptop keyboard
The Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for managing the foreign relations of Afghanistan. The nation has been a member of the UN since 1946, and has maintained good relations with the United States and other NATO member states since the signing of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty in 1919. HP Pavilion dv4-1133tx laptop keyboard
The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established in 2002 under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401 to help the nation recover from decades of war and establish a normal functioning government. SONY VAIO VGN-NW11S/S laptop keyboard
Today, more than 22 NATO nations deploy about 100,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force(ISAF). Apart from close military links, the country also enjoys strong economic relations with NATO members and their allies. It also has diplomatic relations with neighboring Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, HP G62-a33EO laptop keyboard
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, the People's Republic of China, including regional states such as India, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Russia, United Arab Emirate, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Japan, South Korea, and others. DELL V119525BS1 laptop keyboard
Afghanistan–Pakistan relations have been negatively affected by issues related to the Durand Line, the 1978–present war(i.e. Mujahideen, Afghan refugees, Taliban insurgency, and border skirmishes), including water and the growing influence of India in Afghanistan.[186][187] SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S laptop keyboard
Afghan officials often allege that Pakistani and Iranian intelligence agencies are involved in terrorist attacks inside Afghanistan, by training and guiding terrorists to carry out attacks.[188][189][190] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ640 laptop keyboard
Afghanistan has always depended on Pakistani trade routes for import and export but this has changed in the last decade with the opening of Central Asian and Iranian routes.[191] Conversely, Pakistan depends onAfghan water and considers Afghanistan as the only trade route to Central Asian resources.[192] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
India and Iran have actively participated in reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan,[193] with India being the largest regional donor to the country.[194] Since 2002, India has pledged up to $2 billion in economic assistance to Afghanistan and has participated in multiple socio-economic reconstruction efforts, including power, roads, TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
agricultural and educational projects.[194][195] There are also military ties between Afghanistan and India, which is expected to increase after the October 2011 strategic pact that was signed by President Karzai and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.[196][197] HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
The Afghan Armed Forces are under the Ministry of Defense, which includes the Afghan National Army (ANA) and the Afghan Air Force (AAF). It currently has about 200,000 active soldiers and is expected to reach 260,000 in the coming years. HP Pavilion dm1-1002tu laptop keyboard
They are trained and equipped by NATO countries, mainly by the United States Department of Defense. The ANA is divided into 7 major Corps, with the 201st Selab ("Flood") in Kabul followed by the 203rd in Gardez, 205th Atul ("Hero") in Kandahar, 207th in Herat, 209th in Mazar-i-Sharif and the 215th in Lashkar Gah. HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
The ANA also has a commando brigade which was established in 2007. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan serves as the main educational institute for the militarymen of the country. A new $200 million Afghan Defense University (ADU) is under construction near the capital. HP Pavilion dm1-1002tu laptop keyboard
The National Directorate of Security (NDS) is the nation's domestic intelligence agency, which operates similar to that of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and has between 15,000 to 30,000 employees. Compaq Presario CQ61-216TU Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The nation also has about 126,000 national police officers, with plans to recruit more so that the total number can reach 160,000.[198] TheAfghan National Police (ANP) is under the Ministry of the Interior and serves as a single law enforcement agency all across the country. Toshiba Satellite A215-S5802 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Afghan National Civil Order Police is the main branch of the ANP, which is divided into five Brigades and each one commanded by a Brigadier General. These brigades are stationed in Kabul, Gardez, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-i-Sharif. Toshiba Satellite A210-1BC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Every province has an appointed provincial Chief of Police who is responsible for law enforcement in all the districts within his province.
The police receive most training from Western forces under the NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan. According to a 2009 news report, HP G62-b15EL Laptop Keyboard
a large proportion of police officers were illiterate and accused of demanding bribes.[199] Jack Kem, deputy to the commander of NATO Training Mission Afghanistan and Combined Security Transition Command Afghanistan, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
stated that the literacy rate in the ANP will rise to over 50% by January 2012. What began as a voluntary literacy program became mandatory for basic police training in early 2011.[198] Approximately 17% of them tested positive for illegal drug use. HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev Laptop Keyboard
In 2009, President Karzai created two anti-corruption units within the Interior Ministry.[200] Former Interior Minister Hanif Atmar said that security officials from the US (FBI), Britain (Scotland Yard) and the European Union will train prosecutors in the unit. HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
The south and eastern parts of Afghanistan are the most dangerous due to militant activities and the flourishing drug trade. These particular areas are sometimes patrolled by Taliban insurgents, who often plant improvised explosive devices (IEDs) HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
on roads and carry out suicide bombings. Kidnapping and robberies are also reported. Every year many Afghan police officers are killed in the line of duty in these areas. The Afghan Border Police (ABP) are responsible for protecting the nation's airports and borders, HP Mini 110-3519la Laptop Keyboard
especially the disputed Durand Line border which is often used by members of criminal organizations and terrorists for their illegal activities. A report in 2011 suggested that up to 3 million people were involved in the illegal drug business in Afghanistan. ASUS F80Q Laptop Keyboard
Many of the attacks on government employees may be ordered by powerful mafia groups. Drugs from Afghanistan make its way to neighboring and others countries. The Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics is tasked to deal with these issues by bringing to justice major drug traffickers.[201] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
Afghanistan is an impoverished and least developed country, one of the world's poorest because of decades of war and lack of foreign investment. As of 2012, the nation's GDP stands at about $34.29 billion with an exchange rate of $19.91 billion, and the GDP per capita is $1,100. The country's export was $2.6 billion in 2010. HP G62-b20SS Laptop Keyboard
Its unemployment rate is about 35% and roughly the same percentage of its citizens live below the poverty line.[3] About 42% of the population live on less than $1 a day, according to a 2009 report.[202] The nation has less than $1.5 billion external debt and is recovering by the assistance of the world community.[3] ASUS A3000E Laptop Keyboard
The Afghan economy has been growing at about 10% per year in the last decade, which is due to the infusion of over $50 billion in international aid and remittances from Afghan expats.[3] It is also due to improvements made to the transportation system and agricultural production, which is the backbone of the nation's economy.[203] ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard
The country is known for producing some of the finest pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits, including nuts.[204]
While the nations's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard
The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. The Afghan Ministry of Finance is focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 Laptop Keyboard
For example, government revenues increased 31% to $1.7 billion from March 2010 to March 2011.
Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the "Afghani" (AFN) is the national currency, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
with an exchange rate of about 47 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. Since 2003, over 16 new banks have opened in the country, includingAfghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, First Micro Finance Bank, and others. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. For the first time since the 1970s, Afghans have involved themselves in construction, one of the largest industries in the country.[205] HP 489126-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 bn New Kabul City next to the capital, the Ghazi Amanullah Khan City near Jalalabad, and the Aino Mena in Kandahar.[206][207][208] Similar development projects have also begun in Herat in the west,Mazar-e-Sharif in the north and in other cities.[209] DELL Inspiron E1405 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In addition, a number of companies and small factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business-enabling environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.[210] DELL DFS541305MH0T Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
TheAfghan rugs are becoming popular again and this gives many carpet dealers around the country to expand their business by hiring more workers.
Afghanistan is a member of SAARC, ECO and OIC. It is hoping to join SCO soon to develop closer economic ties with neighboring and regional countries in the so-called New Silk Road trade project. HP G62-341NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Foreign MinisterZalmai Rassoul told the media in 2011 that his nation's "goal is to achieve an Afghan economy whose growth is based on trade, private enterprise and investment".[211] Experts believe that this will revolutionize the economy of the region. HP Pavilion dv6648el Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Opium production in Afghanistan soared to a record in 2007 with about 3 million people reported to be involved in the business[212]but then declined significantly in the years following.[213] The government started programs to help reduce cultivation of poppy, and by 2010 it was reported that 24 out of the 34 provinces were free from poppy grow. HP Pavilion dv7-6151ed Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In June 2012, India advocated for private investments in the resource rich country and creation of suitable environment therefor.[214]
Michael O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution explains that if Afghanistan generates about $10 bn per year from its mineral deposits, Toshiba Satellite P100-386 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
its gross national productwould double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs.[215] The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average 2.9 billion (bn) barrels (bbl) of crude oil, HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
15.7 trillion cubic feet (440 bn m3) of natural gas, and562 million bbl of natural gas liquids.[216] In December 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.[217] HP G60-230us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other reports show that the country has huge amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore and other minerals.[55][56][218] The Khanashin carbonatite inHelmand Province contains 1,000,000 metric tons (1,100,000 short tons) HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
of rare earth elements.[219] In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for $3 billion,[220] making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.[221] SONY Vaio VPC-EB1E0E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.[222] Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth between $900 bn and $3 trillion.[57][58][59] Compaq Presario CQ70-220EO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".[58][223][224][225] HP Pavilion dv7-3060sb Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In a 2011 news story, the CSM reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers."[226] ACER Aspire 7720 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Afghanistan has about 53 airports, with the biggest ones being the Kabul International Airport, serving the capital and nearby regions followed Kandahar International Airport in the south, Herat International Airport in the west, SONY UDQF2PH52CF0 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
and Mazar-i-Sharif Airport in the north. Ariana Afghan Airlines is the national carrier, with domestic flights between Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. International flights include to United Arab Emirate, Saudi Arabia, Germany, Turkey, India, Iran, Pakistan and a number of other Asian destinations.[227] Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2522 laptop keyboard
There are also domestic and international flight services available from the locally owned Kam Air, Pamir Airways and Safi Airways. Airlines from a number of regional nations such as Turkish Airlines, Gulf Air, Air Arabia, Air India, PIA and others also provide services to Afghanistan. Flights between Dubai and Kabul take roughly 2 hours to reach. SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
The country has limited rail service with Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan in the north. The government plans to extended the rail line to the capital and then to the eastern border town of Torkham by 2014, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
connecting with Pakistan Railways.[228] Long distant road journeys are made by older model company-owned Mercedes-Benz coach buses or carpool and private cars. Newer automobiles have recently become more widely available after the rebuilding of roads and highways. HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev laptop keyboard
They are imported from the United Arab Emirates through Pakistan and Iran. As of 2012, vehicles that are older than 10 years are banned from being imported into the country. The development of the nation's road network is a major boost for the economy due to trade with neighboring countries. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215B laptop keyboard
Afghanistan's postal and package services such as FedEx, DHL and others make deliveries to major cities and towns.
Telecommunication services in the country are provided by Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, Roshan, MTN Group and Afghan Telecom. In 2006, Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a $64.5 million agreement with ZTE for the establishment of a countrywide optical fiber cable network. As of 2011, Afghanistan has around 17 million GSM phone subscribers and over 1 million internet users. HP Mini 110-3519la laptop keyboard
It only has about 75,000 fixed telephone lines and little over 190,000 CDMAsubscribers.[229] 3G services are provided by Etisalat and MTN Group. The Afghan government announced that it will send expressions of interest to international companies to attract funding will launch its first space satellite by October 2012.[230][231][232][233][234][235][needs update] HP Pavilion DV6t-4000 laptop keyboard
According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world. The average life expectancyis estimated to be around 60 years for both sexes.[236] The country has the ninth highest total fertility rate in the world, at 5.64 children born/woman (according to 2012 estimates).[237] ASUS A3000E laptop keyboard
It has one of the highest maternal mortality rate in the world, estimated in 2010 at 460 deaths/100,000 live births,[238] and the highest infant mortality rate in the world (deaths of babies under one year), estimated in 2012 to be 119.41 deaths/1,000 live births.[239] ASUS A6Jc laptop keyboard
Data from 2010 suggests that one in ten children dies before they are five years old.[240] While these statistics are tragic, the Ministry of Public Health plans to further cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020.[241] The country currently has more than 3,000 midwives with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.[242] ASUS A3Ac laptop keyboard
A number of hospitals and clinics have been built over the last decade, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Childrens Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in the country. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
Some of the other main hospitals in Kabul include the 350-bed Jamhuriat Hospital and the Jinnah Hospital, which is still under construction. There are also a number of well-equipped military-controlled hospitals in different regions of the country. FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 laptop keyboard
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the population lives within two hours by foot to the nearest health facility, up from 9% in 2002.[243] Latest surveys show that 57% of Afghans say they have good or very good access to clinics or hospitals.[242] SONY Vaio PCG-K33F laptop keyboard
The nation also has one of the highest incidences of people with disabilities, with an estimated one million handicapped people.[244] About 80,000 citizens have lost limbs, mainly as a result of landmines.[245][246] Non-governmental charities such as Save the Children andMahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures.[247] SONY VAIO VGN-NW350F laptop keyboard
Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the Indian Institute of Health Management Research and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on Maternal death, among other things.[248] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Education in the country includes K–12 and higher education, which is supervised by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education.[249] The nation's education system was destroyed due to the decades of war, HP 580030-001 Laptop Keyboard
but it began reviving after the Karzai administration came to power in late 2001. More than 5,000 schools were built or renovated in the last decade, with more than 100,000 teachers being trained and recruited.[250] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
More than seven million male and female students are enrolled in schools,[250] with about 100,00 being enrolled in different universities around the country, at least 35% are female.[251] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard
As of 2013, there are 16,000 schools across Afghanistan. Education Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak stated that another 8,000 schools are required to be constructed for the remaining 3 million children who are deprived of education.[252] DELL Inspiron 630m Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Kabul University reopened in 2002 to both male and female students. In 2006, the American University of Afghanistan was established in Kabul, with the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, DELL Studio 1458 laptop keyboard
co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan. The capital of Kabul serves as the learning center of Afghanistan, with many of the best educational institutions being based there. Major universities outside of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the northwest, Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
Balkh University in the north, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the eastern zones, as well as a number of others. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled after the United States Military Academy at West Point, SONY VGN-FE11S laptop keyboard
is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the Afghan Armed Forces. The $200 million Afghan Defense University is under construction near Qargha in Kabul. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul and one school in Jalalabad.[250]
Literacy rate of the entire population has been very low but is now rising because more students go to schools.[253] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
In 2010, the United States began establishing a number of Lincoln learning centers in Afghanistan. They are set up to serve as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
Internet connectivity, educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program is to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location.[254][255] The military and national police are also provided with mandatory literacy courses.[253] GATEWAY MX8711 laptop keyboard
In addition to this, Baghch-e-Simsim (based on the American Sesame Street) was launched in late 2011 to help Afghan children learn from preschool and onward.
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Pashto and Dari (Persian) are the official languages of Afghanistan; bilingualism is very common.[1] Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languagessub-family. Persian has always been the prestige language and a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communication. It is the native tongue of the Tajiks, Hazaras, Aimaks and Kizilbash.[269] HP Pavilion dv4-1211tu laptop keyboard
Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many Pashtuns often use Persian and some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto.
Other languages, including Uzbek, Arabic, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi and Nuristani languages (Ashkunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51e 1844 laptop keyboard
Tregami and Kalasha-ala), are the native tongues of minority groups across the country and have official status in the regions where they are widely spoken. Minor languages also include Pamiri(Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Hindko, and Kyrgyz. A small percentage of Afghans are also fluent in Urdu, English, and other languages. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The Afghan culture has been around for over two millennia, tracing record to at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BCE.[279][280] It is mostly a nomadic and tribal society, with different regions of the country having their own tradition, HP G72-b66US laptop keyboard
reflecting the multi-cultural and multi-lingual character of the nation. In the southern and eastern region the people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali, which is an ancient way of life that is still preserved.[281] LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
The remaining of the country is culturally Persian and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in close proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali[282] in a process called Pashtunization (or Afghanization) while some Pashtuns have been Persianized. Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
Millions of Afghans who have been living in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations.
The Afghan mass media began in the early 20th century, with the first newspaper published in 1906. By the 1920s, Radio Kabulwas broadcasting local radio services. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard
Afghanistan National Television was launched in 1974 but was closed in 1996 when the media was tightly controlled by the Taliban.[292] Since 2002, press restrictions were gradually relaxed and private media diversified. COMPAQ Presario CQ40-145TU Laptop Keyboard
Freedom of expression and the press is promoted in the 2004 constitution and censorship is banned, thoughdefaming individuals or producing material contrary to the principles of Islam is prohibited. In 2008, Reporters Without Borders listed the media environment as 156 out of 173, with the 1st being most free. 400 publications were registered, COMPAQ Presario CQ45-214TU laptop keyboard
at least 15 local Afghan television channels and 60 radio stations.[293] Foreign radio stations, such as Voice of America, BBC World Service, and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast into the country. SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
The city of Kabul has been home to many musicians in the past, who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the Nowruz (New Year) and National Independence Day celebrations. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
Ahmad Zahir, Nashenas, Ustad Sarahang,Sarban, Ubaidullah Jan, Farhad Darya, and Naghma are some of the notable Afghan musicians but there are many others.[294]Most Afghans are accustomed to watching Bollywood films from India and listening to its filmi hit songs. Many of the Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including Madhubala, SONY VAIO VGN NR385E/T Laptop Keyboard
Feroz Khan, Kader Khan, Shahrukh Khan, Aamir Khan, Salman Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, Fardeen Khan, Sohail Khan, Celina Jaitley and many others. In addition, several Bollywood films such as Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, Escape from Taliban and Kabul Expresshave been shot inside Afghanistan. HP 634139-001 Laptop Keyboard
Afghans display pride in their culture, nation, ancestry, and above all, their religion and independence. Like other highlanders, they are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
for their high regard for personal honor, for their tribe loyalty and for their readiness to use force to settle disputes.[283] As tribal warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreigners to conquer them. Tony Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, ACER Aspire 7552G Laptop Keyboard
and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.[283] There are an estimated 60 major Pashtun tribes,[284] and the Afghan nomads are estimated at about 2–3 million.[285] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars.[286] DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them date back to the 2nd century.[287][288][289] HP Pavilion DV3506la Laptop Keyboard
This indicates that Buddhism was widespread in Afghanistan. Other historical places include the cities of Herat, Kandahar, Ghazni, Mazar-i-Sharif, and Zarang. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage site. APPLE ibook g4 14 inch Laptop Keyboard
A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's Prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded by Alexander and the first capital of Afghanistan. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction for tourists. In the north of the country is theShrine of Hazrat Ali, believed by many to be the location where Ali was buried. The Afghan Ministry of Information and Culture is renovating 42 historic sites in Ghazni until 2013, HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard
when the province will be declared as the capital of Islamic civilization.[290] The National Museum of Afghanistan is located in Kabul.
Although literacy level is low, classic Persian and Pashto poetry play an important role in the Afghan culture. SONY 148096222 Laptop Keyboard
Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Some notable poets include Rumi, Rabi'a Balkhi, Sanai, Jami, Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili, and Parween Pazhwak.[291] HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard
The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in international football since 1941 and currently has a world ranking of 179. The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by the Afghanistan Football Federation. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E Laptop Keyboard
The national team has never competed or qualified for the FIFA World Cupbut has recently won an international football trophy in the SAFF Championship. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football. HP 517865-031 Laptop Keyboard
Cricket, which is a newly introduced sport in Afghanistan fuelled by the success of the Afghan national cricket team is growing in popularity.[295] Afghanistan participated in the 2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier, 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One, HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard
and 2010 ICC World Twenty20 where they played India and South Africa. It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007, 2009, and 2011. More recently the under-19 team played in the 2012 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup.[296] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 laptop keyboard
The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium serves as the nation's main cricket stadium, HP G61-415SA laptop keyboard
followed by the Kabul National Cricket Stadium. Several other stadiums are under construction.[297] Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces.
Some of the other popular sports in Afghanistan include basketball, volleyball, taekwondo, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
and bodybuilding.[298] Buzkashi is a traditional sport, mainly among the northern Afghans. It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. Afghan Hounds (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was originally used in the sport of hunting. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
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