Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour
Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, of Isolabella and of Leri (August 10, 1810 – June 6, 1861), generally known as Cavour (Italian: [kaˈvur]) was an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification.[1] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
He was the founder of the original Liberal Party and Prime Minister of theKingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a position he maintained (except for a six-month resignation) throughout the Second Italian War of Independence and Garibaldi's campaigns to unite Italy. After the declaration of a united Kingdom of Italy, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour took office as Italy's first Prime Minister; he died after only three months in office, and thus did not live to see Venetia or Rome as part of the new Italian nation.
Cavour put forth several economic reforms in his native region of Piedmont in his earlier years, and founded the political newspaper Il Risorgimento. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
After being elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he quickly rose in rank through the Piedmontese government, coming to dominate the Chamber of Deputies through a union of left-center and right-center politicians. After a large rail system expansion program, Cavour became prime minister in 1852. As prime minister, Cavour successfully negotiated Piedmont's way through the Crimean War, Second Italian War of Independence, and Garibaldi's expeditions, SONY VGN-FE21M Laptop Keyboard
managing to maneuver Piedmont diplomatically to become a new great powerin Europe, controlling a nearly united Italy that was five times as large as Piedmont had been before he came to power. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour was sent to the Turin Military Academy when he was only ten years old. Cavour frequently ran afoul of the authorities in the academy, as he was too headstrong to deal with the rigid military discipline. He was once forced to live three days on bread and water because he had been caught with books that the academy had banned. HP Mini 110-3118cl Laptop Keyboard
He was found to be apt at the mathematical disciplines, and was therefore enlisted in the Engineer Corps in the Piedmontese-Sardinianarmy in 1827. While in the army, he studied the English language as well as the works of Jeremy Bentham and Benjamin Constant, developing liberal tendencies which made him suspect to police forces at the time.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard
He resigned his commission in the army in November 1831, both because of boredom with military life and because of his dislike of the reactionary policies of the new ruler of Piedmont, Charles Albert. HP Pavilion G7-1081NR Laptop Keyboard
Cavour then spent his time in Switzerland, along with his Protestant relatives in Geneva. He grew acquainted with Calvinist teachings, and for a short while he converted from a form of unorthodox Catholicism, only to go back later. A Reformed pastor, Alexandre Vinet, impressed upon Cavour the need for the separation of church and state, HP Pavilion G7-1150US Laptop Keyboard
a doctrine Cavour followed for the remainder of his life. He then traveled to Paris where he was impressed by parliamentary debates, especially those of François Guizot and Adolphe Thiers, confirming his devotion to a political career. DELL NSK-DJ210 Laptop Keyboard
Afterwards, he left for London, where he was much more disappointed by their politics, though continuing to tour the country, heading to Oxford, Liverpool, Birmingham, Chester,Nottingham, and Manchester. A quicker tour through the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland (German part and Lake of Geneva) eventually landed him back in Turin. HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
Between 1838 and 1842 Cavour began several initiatives in attempts to solve economic problems in his area. Firstly he experimented with different agricultural techniques on his estate, such as the use of sugar beet, and was one of the first Italian landowners to use chemical fertilizers.[4] He also founded the Piedmontese Agricultural Society. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour was a heavy supporter of transportation by steam engine, sponsoring the building of many railroads and canals. In his spare time, he again traveled extensively, mostly in France and the UK. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
The first apparently "liberal" moves of Pope Pius IX and the political upheavals of 1848 spawned a new movement of Italian liberalism, allowing Cavour to enter the political arena, no longer in fear of the police. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S5984 Laptop Keyboard
He then gave a speech in front of numerous journalists in favor of a constitution for Piedmont, which was eventually granted. Cavour, unlike several other political thinkers, was not at first offered a position in the new Chamber of Deputies, as he was still a somewhat suspicious character to the nation. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour never planned for the establishment of a united country, and even later during his Premiership his objective was to expand Piedmont with the annexation of Lombardy and Venetia, rather than a unified Italy. For example, during the conservative period, he gained a reputation as a non-revolutionary progressive. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP03 Laptop Keyboard
He had trouble publicly speaking as he tended to speak French privately but preferred to attempt speaking in Italian in Parliament. Cavour then lost the next election, while the Piedmontese army was destroyed at the Battle of Novara, leading Charles Albert to abdicate, leaving his son, Victor Emmanuel II in charge. DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
Cavour was then brought back into Parliament by the voters, where he was much more successful. His knowledge of European markets and modern economy earned him the position as Minister of Agriculture, Commerce and the Navy in 1850. Cavour soon came to dominate the cabinet and united the Right Center and the Left Center in the chamber to show dominance there as well. LENOVO 25-008128 laptop keyboard
In 1851, Cavour gained a Cabinet promotion to Minister of Finance by working against his colleague from inside the Cabinet in a somewhat disreputable takeover, though it was to Piedmont's advantage through his many economic reforms. This allowed Cavour to begin his vast railway expansion program, giving Piedmont 800 kilometres of track by the year 1860, one third of the railways in Italy at the time.
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Cavour dominated debate in Parliament, but is criticised for a number of controversial methods he used while prime minister, including excessive use of emergency powers, employing friends, bribing newspapers while suppressing others, and rigging elections, though these things were fairly common for the time. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Still, Cavour's career as prime minister can be considered one of the most successful of all time, given that when he took up the post, Piedmont had just suffered a horrible loss to Austria, but when he died, Victor Emmanuel II ruled a state five times as large, which dominated Italy and ranked among Europe's great powers. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
The allied powers of Britain and France asked Piedmont to enter the Crimean war, partially to encourage Austria to enter, which it would not do unless it was certain that Piedmontese troops were not available to attack Austrian positions in Italy. HP Pavilion dv6-2151cl laptop keyboard
Cavour, who hoped that the allies would support Piedmont's expansion in Italy, agreed as soon as his colleagues' support would allow, and entered the war on January 10, 1855. This was too late to truly distinguish themselves militarily, but the 18,000 man contingent earned Piedmont a position at the Congress of Paris, which ended the war. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
In January 1858, the Italian Felice Orsini's attempted assassination of Napoleon III paradoxically opened an avenue of diplomacy between France and Piedmont. While in jail awaiting trial, Orsini wrote a public letter to the Emperor of the French, ending with, "Remember that, so long as Italy is not independent, the peace of Europe and Your Majesty is but an empty dream... TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s1196 laptop keyboard
Set my country free, and the blessings of twenty-five million people will follow you everywhere and forever."[6] Orsini was still executed, but Napoleon III began to explore the possibility of joint operation with Piedmont against Austria. Cavour and Napoleon met in July 1858 at Plombières-les-Bains, and the two agreed that Piedmont would attempt to provoke war with the Duchy of Modena, obliging Austria to enter, HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
and France would then aid Piedmont. In return, Cavour reluctantly agreed to cede Savoy (the seat of the Piedmontese royal family) and Nice to France, and also arranged a royal marriage between Princess Clotilde and Prince Napoleon, surprisingly without Victor Emmanuel's consent.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
In the same year, Cavour sent his cousin, the famous beauty, photographic artist and secret agent Virginia Oldoïni, to further the interests of Italian unification with the emperor by what ever means possible, and by all accounts she succeeded. HP Mini 110-3522tu Laptop Keyboard
Both France and Piedmont began to prepare for war, but diplomatic support diminished rapidly. Napoleon III quickly soured on the plot, and Britain, Prussia, and Russia proposed an international congress, with one likely goal to be the disarmament of Piedmont. Piedmont was saved from this situation by Austria's sending an ultimatum on April 23, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
demanding that Piedmont disarm itself, thus casting Austria as an aggressor. France mobilised and slowly began to enter Italy, but Piedmont would need to defend itself for a short period. Fortunately, rainstorms and Austrian indecision under Ferencz Graf Gyulaigave time for France to arrive in force. SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard
The battles of Magenta and Solferino left Franco-Piedmontese forces in control of Lombardy, but the Austrians remained confident of defending their "fortress quadrilateral" area, with four fortresses in Verona, Legnano, Peschiera, andMantua. SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard
These defenses, the horrors of the Battle of Solferino, the possibility of Prussian entry into the war, and the potential for an over-strong Piedmontese state convinced Napoleon to sign a separate peace with Austria in the Treaty of Villafranca on July 11, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
1859, ending the Second Italian War of Independence. Victor Emmanuel accepted the peace, but Cavour was so infuriated after reading the terms of the treaty that he tendered his resignation. He soon regained his optimism, however, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
as several of the terms, such as the restoration to power of the rulers of Tuscany and Modena, and the establishment of an Italian Confederation including Austria, would not actually be carried out. GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard
Meanwhile, General La Marmora succeeded to Cavour's post and insisted on following the treaty terms, even sending a letter to Tuscany asking that they restore their Grand Duke. (Bettino Ricasoli, virtual dictator of Tuscany at the time, ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
wrote about this appeal to his brother, saying "Tell General La Marmora that I have torn his letter into a thousand pieces."[8]) France continued direct talks with Piedmont on the destiny of the central Italian states, all of whose autocrats supported unification with Piedmont but were restrained by the treaty, which called for the restoration of their old governments. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Cavour had retired to his estate at Leri, out of politics but concerned about the King’s alliance with Garibaldi’s revolutionaries, and his desire to renew the war with Austria without allied support.[9] When the weak La Marmora cabinet resigned, Victor Emmanuel was reluctant to have Cavour as premier again, ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
due both to their quarrel over Villafranca and Cavour's success in preventing the king from marrying his mistress after the queen's death. But Cavour was sent for on January 20, 1860.
Cavour agreed with Napoleon to finally cede Savoy and Nice to France, in order to annex Tuscany and Emilia to Piedmont. Lenovo 3000 V100 0763 laptop keyboard
Plebiscites were arranged with huge majorities in all these provinces to approve the changes.[10] Cavour managed to convince most that uniting Italy would make up for these territorial losses. With this, the first stage of unification was completed, and it would be Garibaldi's turn to bring southern Italy into Piedmont's control. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Garibaldi was furious that his birthplace, Nice, had become a French city, and wished to recapture the city, but a popular insurrection in Palermo on April 4, 1860 diverted him southward. He requested a brigade of Piedmontese to take Sicily from the Bourbon Neapolitans, but Cavour refused. Instead, Lenovo 3000 N100 0768 laptop keyboard
a band of volunteers was brought together, who would come to be known as I Mille, or the Thousand. This small group of redshirts landed at Marsala in Sicily on May 11, later to fight the battles of Calatafimi and Milazzo, consolidating Sicily under Garibaldi's control. Cavour attempted to annex Sicily to Piedmont, but Garibaldi and his accomplice Francesco Crispi would not allow it. SONY 148781311 laptop keyboard
Cavour persuaded Victor Emmanuel to write a letter to Garibaldi, requesting that he not invade the mainland; the letter was indeed sent, but the King secretly wished for Garibaldi to invade and wrote another letter asking him to go ahead, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
but this was apparently never sent.[11] Cavour meanwhile attempted to stir up a liberal revolution in Naples, but the populace was unreceptive. Garibaldi invaded, attempting to reach Naples quickly before Cavour found a way to stop him. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
On September 7, he entered Naples, at that time the largest city in Italy, and unilaterally declared Victor Emmanuel the King of Italy.[12] Garibaldi was now military dictator of southern Italy and Sicily, and he imposed the Piedmontese constitution but publicly demanded that Cavour be removed, which alienated him slightly from Victor Emmanuel. SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
Garibaldi was unwilling to stop at this point, and planned an immediate invasion of the Papal States. Cavour feared France in that case would declare war to defend the Pope, and would successfully stop Garibaldi from initiating his attack. SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
Garibaldi had been weakened by the Battle of Volturno, so Cavour quickly invaded the Papal regions of Umbria and the Marches. This linked the territories conquered by Piedmont with those taken by Garibaldi. The King met Garibaldi halfway at Naples, where Garibaldi handed over control of southern Italy and Sicily, thus uniting Italy. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The relationship between Cavour and Garibaldi was always fractious: Cavour likened Garibaldi to "a savage" while Garibaldi memorably called Cavour "a low intriguer".[13]
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II declared the Kingdom of Italy, making Cavour officially prime minister of Italy. Cavour had many stressful topics that all needed consideration, including how to create a national military, which legal institutions should be kept for where SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard
the future of Rome, which most still believed must be capital of a united Italy, and any number of other concerns. Cavour believed that Rome should remain "a free church in a free state", allowed to maintain its independence though forced to give up temporal power.[14] Still Austrian Venetia was also a problem. LENOVO 25-008389 laptop keyboard
avour recognized that Venice must be an integral part of Italy, but refused to take a stance on how to achieve it, saying "Will the deliverance of Venice come by arms or diplomacy? I do not know. It is the secret of providence."[15] A motion approving of his foreign policy passed by a huge majority, basically only opposed by both left and right-wingextremist groups.
Creating Italy was no easy task, but ruling it proved a worse strain on the Prime Minister. In 1861, at the peak of his career, months of long days coupled with insomnia and constant worry took their toll on Cavour. He fell ill, presumably of malaria, and to make matters worse, insisted upon being bled. His regular doctor would have refused, but he was not available, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
so Cavour was bled several times until it was nearly impossible to draw any blood from him. Despite this, Italy would gain Venice in 1866 through the Austro-Prussian War Pius IX, and France's defeat at Sedan, completing the unification that few thought could be finished without Cavour. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Today, many Italian cities like Turin, Trieste, Rome, Florence and Naples have important streets or squares named for him. The new Marina Militareaircraft carrier Cavour is also named in his honour. This unit was preceded by the famous battleship Conte di Cavour, which fought both in World War I and World War II, and a clipper ship, Camille Cavour. SONY VAIO VGN-NW51FB laptop keyboard
In 1865 a leading Liceo classico in Turin, the oldest high school in the city (founded 1568) and one among the oldest and most prominent ones in Italy, was named after him, and became Liceo classico Cavour. The whole (actual) name is Liceo Ginnasio statale "Camillo Benso di Cavour". It was formerly the College of Nobility, and the Royal College of Education of the Duchy of Savoy and of the Kingdom of Sardinia. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
The Piedmontese, following their defeat by Austria in the First Italian War of Independence, recognised their need for allies. This led Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour to attempt to establish relations with other European powers, partially through Piedmont's participation in the Crimean War. In the peace conference at Paris for the Crimean War, HP Pavilion DV6-1020el Laptop Keyboard
Cavour attempted to bring attention to efforts for Italian unification. He found Britain and France to be sympathetic, but entirely unwilling to go against Austrian wishes, as any movement towards Italian independence would necessarily threaten Austria's territory inLombardy and Venetia. TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
On January 14, 1858, Felice Orsini, an Italian, led an attempt on Napoleon III's life. This assassination attempt brought widespread sympathy for the Italian unification effort, and had a profound effect on Napoleon himself, who now was determined to help Piedmont against Austria in order to end the revolutionary activities that the governments inside Italy might allow to happen in the future. Emperor Napoleon III and Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour, TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 Laptop Keyboard
the prime minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, signed a secret treaty of alliance against Austria: France would help Sardinia to fight against Austria if attacked, and Sardinia would then give Nice and Savoy to France in return. This secret alliance served both countries: it helped with the Sardinian (Piedmontese) plan of unification of the Italian peninsulaunder the House of Savoy, and weakened Austria, a fiery adversary of Napoleon III's French Empire. ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard
Cavour, being unable to get the French help unless the Austrians attacked first, provoked Vienna with a series of military manoeuvers close to the border. Austria issued an ultimatum on April 23, 1859, asking for the complete demobilization of the Sardinian army, and when it was not heeded Austria started a war with Sardinia (April 29), thus drawing France into the conflict.[1] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard
The French army for the Italian campaign had 170,000 soldiers, 2,000 horsemen and 312 guns, half of the whole French army. The army was under the command of Napoleon III, divided into five corps: the I Corps, led by Achille Baraguey d'Hilliers, HP G62-a10EO Laptop Keyboard
the II Corps, led by Patrice MacMahon, the III Corps, led by François Certain Canrobert, the IV Corps, led by Adolphe Niel, and the V Corps, led by prince Napoleon. TheImperial Guard was commanded by Auguste Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ160P/C Laptop Keyboard
The Sardinian army had about 70,000 soldiers, 4,000 horsemen and 90 guns. It was divided into five divisions, led by Casterlbrugo, Manfredo Fanti, Giovanni Durando, Enrico Cialdini, and Domenico Cucchiari. Two volunteer formations, the Cacciatori delle Alpi and the Cacciatori degli Appennini, were also present. The commander in chief was Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, supported by Alfonso Ferrero la Marmora. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
The Austrian army fielded more men: it was composed of 220,000 soldiers, 824 guns and 22,000 horsemen and was led by Field Marshal Ferenc Graf Gyulay.
At the declaration of war, there were no French troops in Italy, so Marshal François Certain Canrobert moved into Piedmont in the first massive use of railways. ACER Ferrari 1100 Laptop Keyboard
The Austrian forces counted on a swift victory over the weaker Sardinian army before French forces could arrive in Piedmont. However, Count Gyulai, the commander of the Austrian troops in Lombardy, was very cautious, marching around the Ticino River in no specific direction for a while until eventually crossing it to begin the offensive. Unfortunately for him, DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
very heavy rains began to fall as soon as he did this, allowing the Piedmontese to flood the rice fields in front of his advance, slowing his army's march to a crawl. The Austrians under Gyulai eventually arrived in Vercelli, menacingTurin, but the Franco-Sardinian move to strengthen Alessandria and Po Riverbridges around Casale Monferrato forced them to fall back. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
On May 14, Napoleon III arrived in Alessandria, taking the command of the operations. The initial clash of the war was at Montebello on 20 May, a battle between an Austrian Corps under Stadion and a single division of the French I Corps under Forey. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
The Austrian contingent was three times as large, but the French were victorious, making Gyulai still more cautious. In early June, Gyulai had advanced to the rail center ofMagenta, leaving his army spread out. Napoleon III attacked the Ticino head on with part of his force while sending another large group of troops to the north to flank the Austrians. Dell Inspiron 2500 Laptop Keyboard
The plan worked, causing Gyulai to retreat east to the quadrilateral fortresses in Lombardy, where he was relieved of his post as commander.
Replacing Gyulai was Emperor Franz Josef I himself. He planned to defend the well- fortified Austrian territory behind the Mincio River. SONY VAIO PCG-F520 Laptop Keyboard
The Piedmontese-French army had taken Milan and slowly marched further east to finish off Austria in this war before Prussia could get involved. The Austrians found out that the French had halted at Brescia, and decided that they should counterattack along the river Chiese. ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard
The two armies met accidentally around Solferino, precipitating a confused series of battles. A French corps held off three Austrian corps all day at Medole, keeping them from joining the larger battle around Solferino, SONY VAIO VGN-CR420D laptop keyboard
where, after a day- long battle, the French broke through. Ludwig von Benedek with the Austrian VIII Corps was separated from the main force, defended Pozzolengo against the Piedmontese part of the opposing army. This they did successfully, but the entire Austrian army retreated after the breakthrough at Solferino, withdrawing back into the Quadrilateral.[2] SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
At the same time, in the northern part of Lombardy, the Italian volunteers of Giuseppe Garibaldi's Hunters of the Alpsdefeated the Austrians at Varese and Como and the Piedmontese-French navy landed 3,000 soldiers and conquered the islands of Losinj (Lussino) and Cres(Cherso) in Dalmatia.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-CR220E laptop keyboard
Fear of involvement by the German states led Napoleon to seek a way out of the war, so he signed an armistice with Austria in Villafranca. Most of Lombardy, with its capital Milan (excepting only the Austrian fortresses of Mantua and Legnago and the surrounding territory), was transferred from Austria to France, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
which would immediately cede these territories to Sardinia. The rulers of Central Italy, who had been expelled by revolution shortly after the beginning of the war, were to be restored.
This deal, made by Napoleon behind the backs of his Sardinian allies, led to great outrage in Sardinia — Cavour himself resigned in protest. However, the terms of Villafranca SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
were never to come into effect: although they were reaffirmed by the final Treaty of Zürich in November, by then the agreement had become a dead letter. The central Italian states were occupied by the Piedmontese, who showed no willingness to restore the previous rulers, and the French showed no willingness to force them to abide by the terms of the treaty. HP G61-420SL Laptop Keyboard
The Austrians were left to look on in frustration at the French failure to carry out the terms of the treaty.
The next year, in 1860, with French and British approval, the central Italian states — Duchy of Parma, Duchy of Modena, Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Papal Legations — were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
and France would take its deferred reward, Savoy and Nice. This latter move was vehemently opposed by Italian national hero Garibaldi, a native of Nice, and directly led to Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, which would complete the preliminary unification of Italy.[4] SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
The Crimean War (pronounced /kraɪˈmiːən/ or /krɨˈmiːən/) (October 1853 – February 1856)[7][8]:7 was a conflict in which Russia lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. While neutral, the Austrian Empire also played a role in stopping the Russians. TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
The immediate issue involved the rights of Christians in the Holy Land, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Orthodox. SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. Russia lost and the Ottomans gained a twenty-year respite from Russian pressure. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The Christians were granted a degree of official equality and the Orthodox gained control of the Christian churches in dispute.[9]:415 Russia survived, gained a new appreciation for its religious diversity, and launched a reform program with far-reaching consequences.[10] SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
Russia and the Ottoman Empire went to war in October 1853 over Russia's rights to protect Orthodox Christians. Russia gained the upper hand after destroying the Ottoman fleet at the Black Sea port of Sinope; to stop Russia's conquest, France and Britain entered in March 1854. Most of the fighting took place for control of the Black Sea, SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
with land battles on the Crimean peninsula in southern Russia. The Russians held their great fortress at Sevastopol for over a year. After it fell, a peace was arranged at Paris in March 1856. The religion issue had already been resolved. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
The main results were that the Black Sea was neutralised—Russia would not have any warships there—and the two vassals Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent under nominal Ottoman rule. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
There were smaller campaigns in eastern Anatolia, Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. In Russia, this war is also known as the "Eastern War" (Russian: Восточная война, Vostochnaya Voina). FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard
The war transformed the region. Because of battles, population exchanges, and nationalist movements incited by the war, the present-day states of Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and regions such as Crimea and the Caucasus all changed in small or large ways due to this conflict.[11] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Crimean War is notorious for logistical, medical and tactical failure on both sides. The naval side saw both a successful Allied campaign which eliminated most of the ships of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea, and a successful blockade by the Royal Navy in the Baltic. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
It was one of the first "modern" wars because it saw the first use of major technologies, such as railways and telegraphs.[12](Preface) It is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole, who pioneered contrasting modern medical practices while treating the wounded. The war was one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports andphotographs. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Russia, as a member of the Holy Alliance, had operated as the "police of Europe", maintaining the balance of power that had been established in the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
and expected gratitude. It wanted a free hand in settling its problems with the Ottoman Empire – the "sick man of Europe". Britain could not tolerate Russian dominance of Ottoman affairs as that would challenge the British role in the eastern Mediterranean.[13] ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
For over 200 years, Russia had been expanding in a southerly direction toward the warm water ports of the Black Sea. Warm water ports that did not freeze over in the winter were essential for the development of Russian year-round trade and development of a strong navy.[9]:11 HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
This brought the emerging Russian state into conflict with the Ukrainian Cossacks and then with the Crimean Tatars.[14] When Russia conquered these groups and gained possession of Ukraine, the Ottoman Empire lost its buffer zone against Russian expansion, HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
and Russia and the Ottoman Empire fell into direct conflict. The conflict with the Ottoman Empire also presented a religious issue of importance, as Russia saw itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians, many of whom lived under Ottoman control.[9](ch 1) DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The immediate chain of events leading to France and Britain declaring war on Russia on 27 and 28 March 1854 came from the ambition of the French emperor Napoleon III to restore the grandeur of France. He wanted Catholic support that would come his way if he attacked Eastern Orthodoxy, as sponsored by Russia.[9]:103 The Marquis Charles deSAMSUNG NP-Q320-JS03UK laptop keyboard
La Valette was a zealous Catholic and a leading member of the "clerical party" which demanded French protection of the Roman Catholic rights to the holy places in Palestine. Napoleon appointed La Valette in May 1851 as his ambassador to the Porte (the Ottoman Empire).[9]:7–9 The appointment was made with the intent to force the Ottomans to recognise France as the "sovereign authority" over the Christian population.[12]:19 Packard Bell Easynote TK87 laptop keyboard
Russia disputed this attempted change in authority. Pointing to two more treaties, one in 1757 and the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Ottomans reversed their earlier decision, renouncing the French treaty and insisting that Russia was the protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
Napoleon III responded with a show of force, sending the ship of the line Charlemagne to the Black Sea. This action was a violation of the London Straits Convention.[12]:19 However, the Ottomans knew that the Charlemagne sailed at a speed of 8½ knots and could defeat the technologically inferior Russian and Ottoman navies combined.[9]:104 Thus, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
France's show of force presented a real threat, and when combined with aggressive diplomacy and money, induced Sultan Abdülmecid I to accept a new treaty, confirming France and the Roman Catholic Church as the supreme Christian authority with control over the Roman Catholic holy places and possession of the keys to the Church of the Nativity, previously held by the Greek Orthodox Church.[12]:20HP Pavilion dv6-2105ew laptop keyboard
Tsar Nicholas I then deployed his 4th and 5th army corps along the River Danube, and had Count Karl Nesselrode, his foreign minister, undertake talks with the Ottomans. Nesselrode confided to Sir George Hamilton Seymour, the British ambassador in Saint Petersburg: TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 laptop keyboard
[The dispute over the holy places] had assumed a new character—that the acts of injustice towards the Greek church which it had been desired to prevent had been perpetrated and consequently that now the object must be to find a remedy for these wrongs. The success of French negotiations at ASUS A8M laptop keyboard
Constantinople was to be ascribed solely to intrigue and violence—violence which had been supposed to be the ultima ratio of kings, being, it had been seen, the means which the present ruler of France was in the habit of employing in the first instance.[12]:21COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
As conflict emerged over the issue of the holy places, Nicholas I and Nesselrode began a diplomatic offensive, which they hoped would prevent either Britain's or France's interfering in any conflict between Russia and the Ottomans, as well as to prevent their allying. SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
Nicholas began courting Britain by means of conversations with the British ambassador, George Hamilton Seymour, in January and February 1853.[9]:105 Nicholas insisted that he no longer wished to expand Imperial Russia[9]:105 but that he had an obligation to the Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire.[9]:105GATEWAY MG2 laptop keyboard
The Tsar next dispatched a diplomat, Prince Menshikov, on a special mission to the Ottoman Sublime Porte in February 1853.[9]:107 By previous treaties, the sultan was committed "to protect the (Eastern Orthodox) Christian religion and its churches". Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new sened, a formal convention with the power of an international treaty, Lenovo ThinkPad T510-4314 laptop keyboard
under which the Ottomans would allow to Russia the same rights of intervention in the affairs of the Orthodox religion as recently allowed France with respect to Catholic churches and churchmen.[15] Such a treaty would allow Russia to control the Orthodox Church's hierarchy in the Ottoman Empire. Menshikov arrived at Istanbul on 16 February 1853, on the steam-powered warship Gromovnik (Thunderer).[16]:4–5ACER TravelMate 3010 laptop keyboard
The ship (Thunderer) that Menshikov sailed to Constantinople aboard was aptly named.[9]:108 Once in Constantinople, Menshikov proceeded to break protocol at the Porte. At his first meeting with the sultan, he insulted the Turks by appearing in civilian clothes rather than customary and traditional military uniform for his official welcome to the Porte.[9] COMPAQ Presario V3628TU laptop keyboard
:109 He then proceeded to condemn the Ottomans' concessions to the French. Menshikov also began demanding the replacement of highly placed Ottoman civil servants—particularly Fuad Efendi the Ottoman foreign minister.[9]:109DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Since the departure in January 1853 of Stratford Canning, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, the British embassy at Constantinople had been run by Hugh Rose, chargé d'affaires for the British.[9]:110 Using his abundant resources within the Ottoman Empire, Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movements along the Danube frontier, HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission to the Porte. On 8 March 1853, Rose, using his authority as the British representative to the Ottomans, ordered Vice-Admiral Sir James Whitley Deans Dundas, stationed on the island of Malta, to bring a British squadron of warships to Urla, İzmir, on the Ionian coast of Turkey.[16]: TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
5 However, Sir James Dundas refused to leave Malta[16]:5 and resented the diplomat (Rose) for believing he could interfere in the Admiralty's business. Within a week, Rose's actions were cancelled.[17] The French fleet sailed from Toulon on 22 March 1853, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and headed for the Bosporus.[9]:112 Their intent was to head off any naval attack on Constantinople on the west side of the narrows at Bosporus. Thus, only the French sent a naval task force to support the Ottomans. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
In February 1853, the British government of Lord Aberdeen, the prime minister, re-appointed Stratford Canning as British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire.[9]:110 Having resigned the ambassadorship in January, he had been replaced byBaron Strathnairn. Lord Stratford then turned around and sailed back to Constantinople, ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard
arriving there on 5 April 1853. There he convinced the Sultan to reject the Russian treaty proposal, as compromising the independence of the Turks. The Leader of the Opposition in the British House of Commons, Benjamin Disraeli, HP QT6D Laptop Keyboard
blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war inevitable, thus starting the process which would eventually force the Aberdeen government to resign in January 1855, over the war.
Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy toward the end of June 1853, HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
the Tsar sent armies under the commands of Field Marshall Ivan Paskevich and General Mikhail Gorchakov across the Pruth River into the Ottoman-controlled Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. Fewer than half of the 80,000 Russian soldiers who crossed the Pruth in 1853 survived. By far, most of the deaths would result from sickness rather than combat,[9]:118–119 for the Russian army still suffered from medical service that ranged from bad to none. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
Russia had previously obtained from the Ottoman Empire recognition of the Tsar's role as special guardian of the Orthodox Christians in Moldavia and Wallachia. Now Russia used the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the protection of the Christian sites in the Holy Land as a pretext for Russian occupation of these Danubian provinces. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Nicholas believed that the European powers, especially Austria, would not object strongly to the annexation of a few neighbouring Ottoman provinces, especially considering that Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution in 1849. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
In July 1853, the Tsar sent his troops into the Danubian Principalities. Britain, hoping to maintain the Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against the expansion of Russian power in Asia, sent a fleet to the Dardanelles, where it joined another fleet sent by France.[18] HP G61-420SL laptop keyboard
At the same time, however, the European powers hoped for a diplomatic compromise. The representatives of the four neutralGreat Powers—Britain, France, Austria and Prussia—met in Vienna, where they drafted a note which they hoped would be acceptable to both the Russians and the Ottomans. SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard
The peace terms arrived at by the four powers at the Vienna Conference were delivered to the Russians by the Austrian Foreign Minister Count Karl Von Buol on 5 December 1853. The note met with the approval of Nicholas I; HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
however, Abdülmecid I rejected the proposal, feeling that the document's poor phrasing left it open to many different interpretations. Britain, France, and Austria united in proposing amendments to mollify the Sultan, but the court of St Petersburg ignored their suggestions.[9]:143SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M laptop keyboard
Britain and France set aside the idea of continuing negotiations, but Austria and Prussia did not believe that the rejection of the proposed amendments justified the abandonment of the diplomatic process. Nonetheless, the Sultan formally declared war on Russia on 23 October 1853,[7] Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
and proceeded to the attack, his armies moving on the Russian army near the Danube later that month. Russia and the Ottoman empire massed forces on two main fronts, the Caucasus and the Danube. Ottoman leader Omar Pashamanaged to achieve some victories on the Danubian front.[19]In the Caucasus, the Ottomans were able to stand ground with the help of Chechen Muslims led by Imam Shamil.[20] SONY VAIO VGN-CR24G laptop keyboard
Nicholas responded by dispatching warships, which in the Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853 destroyed a patrol squadron of Ottoman frigates and corvettes while they were anchored in port in northern Anatolia. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The destruction of the Ottoman ships provided Britain and France with the casus belli ("case for war") for declaring war against Russia on the side of the Ottoman Empire. By 28 March 1854, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian Principalities, Britain and France formally declared war.[21] HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
Nicholas felt that because of Russian assistance in suppressing the Hungarian revolution of 1848, Austria would side with him, or at the very least remain neutral. Austria, however, felt threatened by the Russian troops. When Britain and France demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from the principalities, Austria supported them and, though it did not immediately declare war on Russia, it refused to guarantee its neutrality. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
Russia then withdrew its troops from the Danubian principalities, which were then occupied by Austria for the duration of the war. This removed the original grounds for war, but Britain and France continued with hostilities. Determined to address the Eastern Question by putting an end to the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire, the allies proposed several conditions for a peaceful resolution, including: TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
The Danube campaign opened when the Russians occupied the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in May 1853, bringing their forces to the north bank of the river Danube. In response, the Ottoman Empire also moved its forces up to the river. It established strongholds at Vidin in the west, and Silistra,[9]:172–84 which was located in the east, near the mouth of the Danube. SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
The Turkish/Ottoman move up the Danube River was also of concern to the Austrians, who moved forces into Transylvaniain response. However, the Austrians had begun to fear the Russians more than the Turks. Indeed, TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
like the British, the Austrians were now coming to see that an intact Ottoman Empire was necessary as a bulwark against the Russians. Accordingly, the Austrians resisted Russian diplomatic attempts to join the war on the Russian side. Austria remained neutral in the Crimean War.[22] SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
Following the Ottoman ultimatum in September 1853, forces under the Ottoman general Omar Pasha crossed the Danube at Vidin and captured Calafat in October 1853. Simultaneously, in the east, the Ottomans crossed the Danube at Silistra and attacked the Russians at Oltenița. The resulting Battle of Oltenița HP Pavilion dv6-3217cl laptop keyboard
was the first engagement following the declaration of war. The Russians counterattacked, but were beaten back.[23] On 31 December 1853, the Ottoman forces at Kalafat moved against the Russian force at Chetatea or Cetate, a small village nine miles north of Kalafat, and engaged them on 6 January 1854. The battle began when the Russians made a move to recapture Kalafat. SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard
Most of the heavy fighting, however, took place in and around Chetatea until the Russians were driven out of the village. Despite the setback at Chetatea, on 28 January 1854, Russian forces laid siege to Calafat. The siege would continue until May 1854 when the Russians lifted the siege. The Ottomans would also later beat the Russians in battle at Caracal.[9]:130–43SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
In the spring of 1854 the Russians again advanced, crossing the Danube River into the Turkish province of Dobruja. By April 1854, the Russians had reached the lines of Trajan's Wall where they were finally halted. In the center, the Russian forces crossed the Danube and laid siege to Silistra from 14 April until 23 June 1854.[24] Compaq Presario CQ56-105TU laptop keyboard
In the west, the Russians were dissuaded from attacking Vidin by the presence of the Austrian forces, which had swelled to 280,000 men. On 28 May 1854 a protocol of the Vienna Conference was signed by Austria and Russia. One of the aims of the Russian advance had been to encourage the Orthodox Christian Serbs and Bulgarians living under Ottoman rule to rebel. However, when the Russian troops actually crossed the River Pruth into Moldavia, ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
the Orthodox Christians still showed no interest in rising up against the Turks.[9]:131, 137 Adding to the worries of Nicholas I was the concern that Austria would enter the war against the Russians and attack his armies on the western flank. Indeed, after attempting to mediate a peaceful settlement between Russia and Turkey, HP 431416-001 Laptop Keyboard
the Austrians entered the war on the side of Turkey with an attack against the Russians in the Principalities which threatened to cut off the Russian supply lines. Accordingly, the Russians were forced to raise the siege of Silistra on 23 June 1854, and begin abandoning the Principalities.[9]:185HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
In June 1854 the Allied expeditionary force landed at Varna, but made little advance from their base there.[9]:175–176In July 1854, the Turks under Omar Pasha crossed the Danube into Wallachia and on 7 July 1854, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
engaged the Russians in the city of Giurgiu and conquered it. The capture of Giurgiu by the Turks immediately threatened Bucharest in Wallachia with capture by the same Turk army. On 26 July 1854, Tsar Nicholas I ordered the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Principalities. Also in late July 1854, following up on the Russian retreat, the French staged an expedition against the Russian forces still in Dobruja, but this was a failure.[9]:188–190SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D Laptop Keyboard
By then the Russian withdrawal was complete, except for the fortress towns of northern Dobruja, while their place in the Principalities was taken by the Austrians, as a neutral peacekeeping force.[9]:189 There was little further action on this front after the autumn of 1854 and in September the allied force boarded ships at Varna to move up the Dardanelles to the Black Sea to invade the Crimean Peninsula.[9]:198TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 Laptop Keyboard
The naval operations of the Crimean war commenced with the dispatch, in summer of 1853, of the French and British fleets to the Black Sea region, to support the Ottomans and to dissuade the Russians from encroachment. By June 1853 both fleets were stationed at Besikas bay, outside the Dardanelles. With the Russian occupation of the Danube Principalities in October they moved to the Bosphorus and in November entered the Black Sea. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
During this period the Russian Black Sea Fleet was operating against Ottoman coastal traffic between Constantinople (currently named Istanbul) and the Caucasus ports, while the Ottoman fleet sought to protect this supply line. HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard
The clash came on 30 November 1853 when a Russian fleet attacked an Ottoman force in the harbor at Sinop, and destroyed it.[25] There was little additional naval action until March 1854 when on the declaration of war the British frigateFurious was fired on outside Odessa harbour. In response the British fleet bombarded the port, causing much damage to the town. HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee Laptop Keyboard
In June the fleets transported the Allied expeditionary forces to Varna, in support of the Ottoman operations on the Danube; in September they again transported the armies, this time to the Crimea. The Russian fleet during this time declined to engage the allies, preferring to maintain a "fleet in being"; this strategy failed when Sevastopol, DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
the main port and where most of the Black Sea fleet was based, came under siege. The Russians were reduced to scuttling their warships as blockships, after stripping them of their guns and men to reinforce batteries on shore. During the siege, FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard
the Russians lost four 110- or 120-gun, 3-decker ships of the line, twelve 84-gun 2-deckers and four 60-gun frigates in the Black Sea, plus a large number of smaller vessels.During the rest of the campaign the allied fleets remained in control of the Black Sea, ensuring the various fronts were kept supplied. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
In April 1855 they supported an invasion of Kerch and operated against Taganrog in the Sea of Azov. In September they moved against Russian installations in the Dnieper estuary, attacking Kinburn in the first use of ironclad ships in naval warfare. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
The Russians evacuated Wallachia and Moldavia in late July 1854. With the evacuation of the Danubian Principalities the immediate cause of war was withdrawn and the war might have ended at this time.[9]:192 However, war fever among the public in both Britain and France had been whipped up by the press in both countries to the degree that politicians found it untenable to propose ending the war at this point. SONY VAIO PCG-FR215H laptop keyboard
Indeed the Peelite Government of George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen fell on 30 January 1855 on a no-confidence vote[26] because Aberdeen was reluctant to sign on to a plan of extending the war.[9]:311Accordingly, allied troops sailed from Varna, on the coast of the Turkish province of Bulgaria to land in the Crimea, IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
with the intent of besieging the city of Sevastopol, home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet. In the eyes of the British and the French, the Russian fleet was a threat to the Mediterranean. The British and the French both wished to keep the Russians an effectively landlocked power for as long as possible. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
If the Russian Black Sea Fleet were allowed through the Straits of the Dardanelles, the Mediterranean might then effectively be under contested control between British, French, and Russian interests. HP 6530S laptop keyboard
Additionally, Russian maritime and military access to the Mediterranean meant that the balance of power in Europe might thereafter be forever changed to the detriment of the Western European powers. Seeing this as an unacceptable outcome of a Russian victory in their war with the Turks—as the war had indeed begun, and which the Turks, whom the Allies came to aid, had started. HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee laptop keyboard
The Crimean campaign opened in September 1854 with the landing of the allied expeditionary force on the sandy beaches of Calamita Bay on the south west coast of the Crimean Peninsula.[9]:201 Their main strategic goal was to capture the Russian fortresses at Sevastopol located to the south of Calamita Bay.[9] TOSHIBA Satellite L355-S7812 laptop keyboard
:194 However, to protect the allies' left flank from attack by the Russians, the allied armies first moved north and west along the coast of the Peninsula to occupy the city ofEupatoria.[9]:201 After the crossing the Alma River on 30 September 1854,[27] ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
the allies moved on to invest Sevastopol. The Russian army retreated to the interior. A Russian assault on the allied supply base at Balaclava was rebuffed on 25 October 1854.[28]:521–527 The Battle of Balaclava is noteworthy for the bravery of two British units. The93rd Highlanders stood solidly against repeated attacks by a larger Russian force.[28]:523Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
This stand led the 93rd Highlanders to be remembered in history as the "Thin Red Line". The second British unit to gain immortality in the Battle of Balaclava was the Light Cavalry Brigade under the command of the Earl of Cardigan. An extremely ambiguous order sent the brigade on the near suicidal charge of the Light Brigade into the north Valley of the Balaclava battlefield.[28]:524 Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
The heights around the north Valley were brimming with Russian artillery which bombarded the Light Brigade. Of the original nearly 700-man strength of the Light Brigade, 278 were killed or wounded. The Light Brigade was memorialised in the famous poem by Alfred Lord Tennysoncalled the "Charge of the Light Brigade". HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
Although traditionally, the charge of the Light Brigade was looked upon as a glorious but wasted sacrifice of good men and horses, recent historians have revised this conclusion somewhat by stating that the charge of the Light Brigade did succeed in at least some of its objectives.[9]:252 TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 laptop keyboard
The aim of any cavalry charge is to scatter the enemy lines and frighten the enemy off the battlefield. In this regard, even the Russians admitted that the charge of Light Brigade had so un-nerved the Russian cavalry, Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
which had previously been routed by the Heavy Brigade, that the Russian Cavalry was set to full-scale flight by the subsequent charge of the Light Brigade.[9]:252 Thus, the charge of the Light Brigade is now viewed in some circles as having achieved at least part of its objective. HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa laptop keyboard
The failure of the British and French to follow up on the Battle of Balaclava led directly to another and much more bloody battle—the Battle of Inkerman.[28]:526 On 5 November 1854, the Russians attempted to raise the siege at Sevastopol with an attack against the allies near the town of Inkerman which resulted in another allied victory.[29] ACER Aspire One D250-1151 laptop keyboard
Meanwhile at Sevastopol, the allies had surrounded the city with entrenchments and, in October 1854, unleashed an all–out bombardment (the first of many) against the city's defences. Winter, and a deteriorating supply situation on both sides, led to a halt in ground operations. Sevastopol remained invested by the allies, while the allied armies were hemmed in by the Russian army in the interior. SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
In February 1855 the Russians attacked the allied base at Eupatoria,[9]:321–322 where an Ottoman army had built up and was threatening Russian supply routes. The battle saw the Russians defeated[9]:321 and led to a change in command. The strain of directing the war had taken its toll on the health of Tsar Nicholas.[30]:96SONY Vaio VGN-AW160J/Q laptop keyboard
With his resistance down, Nicholas caught a cold in February 1855. On 8 February 1855, the Tsar's cold developed into influenza.[9]:321 News of the Russian defeat at Eupatoria reached the Tsar in St. HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard
Petersburg on 16 February 1855 and depressed him more than before. The Tsar's condition worsened and he caught pneumonia.[9]:322 He died on 18 February 1855 according to the Julian calendar.[30]:98 Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
On the allied side the emphasis of the siege at Sevastopol shifted to the right-hand sector of the lines, against the fortifications on Malakoff hill.[9]:339 In March there was fighting by the French over the fort at Mamelon, located on a hill in front of the Malakoff. Several weeks of fighting saw little change in the front line, and the Mamelon remained in Russian hands. DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard
In April 1855, the allies staged a second all-out bombardment, leading to an artillery duel with the Russian guns,[9]:340 but no ground assault followed.[9]:341 On 24 May 1855, sixty ships containing 7,000 French, 5,000 Turkish and 3,000 British troops set off for a raid on the city of Kerch east of Sevastopol in an attempt to open another front on the Crimean peninsula and to cut off Russian supplies.[9]: ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
344 The allies landed the force at Kerch. The plan was to outflank the Russian army. The landings were successful, but the force made little progress thereafter. In June a third bombardment was followed by a successful attack on the Mamelon, ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard
but a follow-up assault on the Malakoff failed with heavy losses. During this time the garrison commander, Admiral Nakhimov, suffered a fatal bullet wound to the head and died on 30 June 1855.[9]:378HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
In August the Russians again made an attack on the base at Balaclava. The resulting battle of Tchernaya was a defeat for the Russians, who suffered heavy casualties. September saw the final assault. On 5 September another French bombardment (the sixth) was followed by an assault by the French Army on 8 September resulting in the capture of the Malakoff by the French, HP Pavilion DV7-4100 Laptop Keyboard
and the collapse of the Russian defences. Meanwhile the British captured the Great Redan, just south of the city of Sevastopol. The city fell on 9 September 1855 after a year-long siege.[30]:106
The Governor of Taganrog, Yegor Tolstoy, ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
and lieutenant-general Ivan Krasnov refused the ultimatum, responding that "Russians never surrender their cities". The British–French squadron bombarded Taganrog for 6½ hours and landed 300 troops near the Old Stairway in downtown Taganrog, but they were thrown back by Don Cossacks and a volunteer corps. TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard
In July 1855 the allied squadron tried to go past Taganrog to Rostov on Don, entering the Don River through the Mius River. On 12 July 1855 HMS Jasper grounded near Taganrog thanks to a fisherman who repositioned the buoys into shallow waters. The Cossacks captured the gunboat with all of its guns and blew it up. The third siege attempt was made 19–31 August 1855, HP Pavilion DV6-1103ax Laptop Keyboard
but the city was already fortified and the squadron could not approach close enough for landing operations. The allied fleet left the Gulf of Taganrog on 2 September 1855, with minor military operations along theAzov Sea coast continuing until late autumn 1855. HP Pavilion ze4325 Laptop Keyboard
In summer of 1853 the Ottoman forces held strongholds at Kars, Batum, and Erzurum, with lesser forts at Ardahan andBayazid. The Ottoman forces planned an invasion of Georgia but after some initial success were unable to maintain this and were forced to retreat. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Russian forces in the region were spread thinly, due to the demands of holding down the region against insurrection, but during 1853 were reinforced. In September 1853 there were a number of clashes between Russian and Ottoman forces. Additionally, there were later battles at Fort St. Nicolas in October 1853 and twice at Alexandropol in October 1853 and again in December 1853. On 26 November 1853, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
the Russians beat the Ottoman armed forces at the battle of Akhaltsikh. On 1 December General Bebutov led 10,000 soldiers and 32 guns to win a victory over a 36,000-man Ottoman Army under Ahmed Pasha at the battle of Bashkadiklar.[31] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
In the spring of 1854 the Russians planned an invasion of Ottoman territory. On 16 June Prince Andronikov with 10,000 soldiers and 18 guns achieved a victory over a 34,000-man Ottoman Army at the Cholok river; on 31 July Russian forces seized Bayazid; IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
on 5 August General Bebutov with 18,000 men and 64 guns had successfully waged the battle of Kurekdere, 11 miles from Kars. Following these encounters there was little further action that year.
SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard
However they settled down to a siege on 18 June, which had became almost total from the middle of August. The siege had been successful and Kars surrendered on 28 November 1855. Commander of its garrison Mehmet Vasif Pasha had yielded the fortress keys, 12 Ottoman banners and 18,500 soldiers as captives. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
As a result of this operation the Russian Army assumed control not merely over the forts and city, but also over the whole area including Ardahan, Kagyzman, Oltu and part of Basen district. Meanwhile the Ottoman army at Batum invaded Georgia, but after an inconclusive clash at the Ingur river the offensive collapsed and they retreated to Batum. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The Baltic was a forgotten theatre of the Crimean War. The popularisation of events elsewhere had overshadowed the significance of this theatre, which was close to Saint Petersburg, the Russian capital. In April 1854 an Anglo-French fleet was sent into the Baltic to attack the Russian seaport of Kronstadtand the Russian fleet stationed there.[32] TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
In August 1854 the combined British and French fleet returned to Kronstadt for another attempt. The outnumberedRussian Baltic Fleet confined its movements to the areas around its fortifications. At the same time, British and French commanders Sir Charles Napier andAlexandre Ferdinand Parseval-Deschenes—although COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard
they led the largest fleet assembled since the Napoleonic Wars—considered the Sveaborg fortress too well-defended to engage. Thus, shelling of the Russian batteries was limited to two attempts in the summers of 1854 and 1855, HP Mini 110-3001ev laptop keyboard
and initially, the attacking fleets limited their actions to blockading the Russian trade in the Gulf of Finland.[33] Naval attacks on other ports, such as the ones at Hogland, were more successful.[34] Additionally, they conducted raids on less fortified sections of the Finnish coast. Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, of Isolabella and of Leri (August 10, 1810 – June 6, 1861), generally known as Cavour (Italian: [kaˈvur]) was an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification.[1] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
He was the founder of the original Liberal Party and Prime Minister of theKingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a position he maintained (except for a six-month resignation) throughout the Second Italian War of Independence and Garibaldi's campaigns to unite Italy. After the declaration of a united Kingdom of Italy, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour took office as Italy's first Prime Minister; he died after only three months in office, and thus did not live to see Venetia or Rome as part of the new Italian nation.
Cavour put forth several economic reforms in his native region of Piedmont in his earlier years, and founded the political newspaper Il Risorgimento. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
After being elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he quickly rose in rank through the Piedmontese government, coming to dominate the Chamber of Deputies through a union of left-center and right-center politicians. After a large rail system expansion program, Cavour became prime minister in 1852. As prime minister, Cavour successfully negotiated Piedmont's way through the Crimean War, Second Italian War of Independence, and Garibaldi's expeditions, SONY VGN-FE21M Laptop Keyboard
managing to maneuver Piedmont diplomatically to become a new great powerin Europe, controlling a nearly united Italy that was five times as large as Piedmont had been before he came to power. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour was sent to the Turin Military Academy when he was only ten years old. Cavour frequently ran afoul of the authorities in the academy, as he was too headstrong to deal with the rigid military discipline. He was once forced to live three days on bread and water because he had been caught with books that the academy had banned. HP Mini 110-3118cl Laptop Keyboard
He was found to be apt at the mathematical disciplines, and was therefore enlisted in the Engineer Corps in the Piedmontese-Sardinianarmy in 1827. While in the army, he studied the English language as well as the works of Jeremy Bentham and Benjamin Constant, developing liberal tendencies which made him suspect to police forces at the time.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard
He resigned his commission in the army in November 1831, both because of boredom with military life and because of his dislike of the reactionary policies of the new ruler of Piedmont, Charles Albert. HP Pavilion G7-1081NR Laptop Keyboard
Cavour then spent his time in Switzerland, along with his Protestant relatives in Geneva. He grew acquainted with Calvinist teachings, and for a short while he converted from a form of unorthodox Catholicism, only to go back later. A Reformed pastor, Alexandre Vinet, impressed upon Cavour the need for the separation of church and state, HP Pavilion G7-1150US Laptop Keyboard
a doctrine Cavour followed for the remainder of his life. He then traveled to Paris where he was impressed by parliamentary debates, especially those of François Guizot and Adolphe Thiers, confirming his devotion to a political career. DELL NSK-DJ210 Laptop Keyboard
Afterwards, he left for London, where he was much more disappointed by their politics, though continuing to tour the country, heading to Oxford, Liverpool, Birmingham, Chester,Nottingham, and Manchester. A quicker tour through the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland (German part and Lake of Geneva) eventually landed him back in Turin. HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
Between 1838 and 1842 Cavour began several initiatives in attempts to solve economic problems in his area. Firstly he experimented with different agricultural techniques on his estate, such as the use of sugar beet, and was one of the first Italian landowners to use chemical fertilizers.[4] He also founded the Piedmontese Agricultural Society. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour was a heavy supporter of transportation by steam engine, sponsoring the building of many railroads and canals. In his spare time, he again traveled extensively, mostly in France and the UK. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
The first apparently "liberal" moves of Pope Pius IX and the political upheavals of 1848 spawned a new movement of Italian liberalism, allowing Cavour to enter the political arena, no longer in fear of the police. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S5984 Laptop Keyboard
He then gave a speech in front of numerous journalists in favor of a constitution for Piedmont, which was eventually granted. Cavour, unlike several other political thinkers, was not at first offered a position in the new Chamber of Deputies, as he was still a somewhat suspicious character to the nation. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Cavour never planned for the establishment of a united country, and even later during his Premiership his objective was to expand Piedmont with the annexation of Lombardy and Venetia, rather than a unified Italy. For example, during the conservative period, he gained a reputation as a non-revolutionary progressive. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP03 Laptop Keyboard
He had trouble publicly speaking as he tended to speak French privately but preferred to attempt speaking in Italian in Parliament. Cavour then lost the next election, while the Piedmontese army was destroyed at the Battle of Novara, leading Charles Albert to abdicate, leaving his son, Victor Emmanuel II in charge. DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
Cavour was then brought back into Parliament by the voters, where he was much more successful. His knowledge of European markets and modern economy earned him the position as Minister of Agriculture, Commerce and the Navy in 1850. Cavour soon came to dominate the cabinet and united the Right Center and the Left Center in the chamber to show dominance there as well. LENOVO 25-008128 laptop keyboard
In 1851, Cavour gained a Cabinet promotion to Minister of Finance by working against his colleague from inside the Cabinet in a somewhat disreputable takeover, though it was to Piedmont's advantage through his many economic reforms. This allowed Cavour to begin his vast railway expansion program, giving Piedmont 800 kilometres of track by the year 1860, one third of the railways in Italy at the time.
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Cavour dominated debate in Parliament, but is criticised for a number of controversial methods he used while prime minister, including excessive use of emergency powers, employing friends, bribing newspapers while suppressing others, and rigging elections, though these things were fairly common for the time. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Still, Cavour's career as prime minister can be considered one of the most successful of all time, given that when he took up the post, Piedmont had just suffered a horrible loss to Austria, but when he died, Victor Emmanuel II ruled a state five times as large, which dominated Italy and ranked among Europe's great powers. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
The allied powers of Britain and France asked Piedmont to enter the Crimean war, partially to encourage Austria to enter, which it would not do unless it was certain that Piedmontese troops were not available to attack Austrian positions in Italy. HP Pavilion dv6-2151cl laptop keyboard
Cavour, who hoped that the allies would support Piedmont's expansion in Italy, agreed as soon as his colleagues' support would allow, and entered the war on January 10, 1855. This was too late to truly distinguish themselves militarily, but the 18,000 man contingent earned Piedmont a position at the Congress of Paris, which ended the war. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
In January 1858, the Italian Felice Orsini's attempted assassination of Napoleon III paradoxically opened an avenue of diplomacy between France and Piedmont. While in jail awaiting trial, Orsini wrote a public letter to the Emperor of the French, ending with, "Remember that, so long as Italy is not independent, the peace of Europe and Your Majesty is but an empty dream... TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s1196 laptop keyboard
Set my country free, and the blessings of twenty-five million people will follow you everywhere and forever."[6] Orsini was still executed, but Napoleon III began to explore the possibility of joint operation with Piedmont against Austria. Cavour and Napoleon met in July 1858 at Plombières-les-Bains, and the two agreed that Piedmont would attempt to provoke war with the Duchy of Modena, obliging Austria to enter, HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
and France would then aid Piedmont. In return, Cavour reluctantly agreed to cede Savoy (the seat of the Piedmontese royal family) and Nice to France, and also arranged a royal marriage between Princess Clotilde and Prince Napoleon, surprisingly without Victor Emmanuel's consent.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
In the same year, Cavour sent his cousin, the famous beauty, photographic artist and secret agent Virginia Oldoïni, to further the interests of Italian unification with the emperor by what ever means possible, and by all accounts she succeeded. HP Mini 110-3522tu Laptop Keyboard
Both France and Piedmont began to prepare for war, but diplomatic support diminished rapidly. Napoleon III quickly soured on the plot, and Britain, Prussia, and Russia proposed an international congress, with one likely goal to be the disarmament of Piedmont. Piedmont was saved from this situation by Austria's sending an ultimatum on April 23, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
demanding that Piedmont disarm itself, thus casting Austria as an aggressor. France mobilised and slowly began to enter Italy, but Piedmont would need to defend itself for a short period. Fortunately, rainstorms and Austrian indecision under Ferencz Graf Gyulaigave time for France to arrive in force. SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard
The battles of Magenta and Solferino left Franco-Piedmontese forces in control of Lombardy, but the Austrians remained confident of defending their "fortress quadrilateral" area, with four fortresses in Verona, Legnano, Peschiera, andMantua. SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard
These defenses, the horrors of the Battle of Solferino, the possibility of Prussian entry into the war, and the potential for an over-strong Piedmontese state convinced Napoleon to sign a separate peace with Austria in the Treaty of Villafranca on July 11, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
1859, ending the Second Italian War of Independence. Victor Emmanuel accepted the peace, but Cavour was so infuriated after reading the terms of the treaty that he tendered his resignation. He soon regained his optimism, however, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
as several of the terms, such as the restoration to power of the rulers of Tuscany and Modena, and the establishment of an Italian Confederation including Austria, would not actually be carried out. GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard
Meanwhile, General La Marmora succeeded to Cavour's post and insisted on following the treaty terms, even sending a letter to Tuscany asking that they restore their Grand Duke. (Bettino Ricasoli, virtual dictator of Tuscany at the time, ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
wrote about this appeal to his brother, saying "Tell General La Marmora that I have torn his letter into a thousand pieces."[8]) France continued direct talks with Piedmont on the destiny of the central Italian states, all of whose autocrats supported unification with Piedmont but were restrained by the treaty, which called for the restoration of their old governments. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Cavour had retired to his estate at Leri, out of politics but concerned about the King’s alliance with Garibaldi’s revolutionaries, and his desire to renew the war with Austria without allied support.[9] When the weak La Marmora cabinet resigned, Victor Emmanuel was reluctant to have Cavour as premier again, ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
due both to their quarrel over Villafranca and Cavour's success in preventing the king from marrying his mistress after the queen's death. But Cavour was sent for on January 20, 1860.
Cavour agreed with Napoleon to finally cede Savoy and Nice to France, in order to annex Tuscany and Emilia to Piedmont. Lenovo 3000 V100 0763 laptop keyboard
Plebiscites were arranged with huge majorities in all these provinces to approve the changes.[10] Cavour managed to convince most that uniting Italy would make up for these territorial losses. With this, the first stage of unification was completed, and it would be Garibaldi's turn to bring southern Italy into Piedmont's control. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Garibaldi was furious that his birthplace, Nice, had become a French city, and wished to recapture the city, but a popular insurrection in Palermo on April 4, 1860 diverted him southward. He requested a brigade of Piedmontese to take Sicily from the Bourbon Neapolitans, but Cavour refused. Instead, Lenovo 3000 N100 0768 laptop keyboard
a band of volunteers was brought together, who would come to be known as I Mille, or the Thousand. This small group of redshirts landed at Marsala in Sicily on May 11, later to fight the battles of Calatafimi and Milazzo, consolidating Sicily under Garibaldi's control. Cavour attempted to annex Sicily to Piedmont, but Garibaldi and his accomplice Francesco Crispi would not allow it. SONY 148781311 laptop keyboard
Cavour persuaded Victor Emmanuel to write a letter to Garibaldi, requesting that he not invade the mainland; the letter was indeed sent, but the King secretly wished for Garibaldi to invade and wrote another letter asking him to go ahead, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
but this was apparently never sent.[11] Cavour meanwhile attempted to stir up a liberal revolution in Naples, but the populace was unreceptive. Garibaldi invaded, attempting to reach Naples quickly before Cavour found a way to stop him. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
On September 7, he entered Naples, at that time the largest city in Italy, and unilaterally declared Victor Emmanuel the King of Italy.[12] Garibaldi was now military dictator of southern Italy and Sicily, and he imposed the Piedmontese constitution but publicly demanded that Cavour be removed, which alienated him slightly from Victor Emmanuel. SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
Garibaldi was unwilling to stop at this point, and planned an immediate invasion of the Papal States. Cavour feared France in that case would declare war to defend the Pope, and would successfully stop Garibaldi from initiating his attack. SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
Garibaldi had been weakened by the Battle of Volturno, so Cavour quickly invaded the Papal regions of Umbria and the Marches. This linked the territories conquered by Piedmont with those taken by Garibaldi. The King met Garibaldi halfway at Naples, where Garibaldi handed over control of southern Italy and Sicily, thus uniting Italy. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The relationship between Cavour and Garibaldi was always fractious: Cavour likened Garibaldi to "a savage" while Garibaldi memorably called Cavour "a low intriguer".[13]
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II declared the Kingdom of Italy, making Cavour officially prime minister of Italy. Cavour had many stressful topics that all needed consideration, including how to create a national military, which legal institutions should be kept for where SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard
the future of Rome, which most still believed must be capital of a united Italy, and any number of other concerns. Cavour believed that Rome should remain "a free church in a free state", allowed to maintain its independence though forced to give up temporal power.[14] Still Austrian Venetia was also a problem. LENOVO 25-008389 laptop keyboard
avour recognized that Venice must be an integral part of Italy, but refused to take a stance on how to achieve it, saying "Will the deliverance of Venice come by arms or diplomacy? I do not know. It is the secret of providence."[15] A motion approving of his foreign policy passed by a huge majority, basically only opposed by both left and right-wingextremist groups.
Creating Italy was no easy task, but ruling it proved a worse strain on the Prime Minister. In 1861, at the peak of his career, months of long days coupled with insomnia and constant worry took their toll on Cavour. He fell ill, presumably of malaria, and to make matters worse, insisted upon being bled. His regular doctor would have refused, but he was not available, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
so Cavour was bled several times until it was nearly impossible to draw any blood from him. Despite this, Italy would gain Venice in 1866 through the Austro-Prussian War Pius IX, and France's defeat at Sedan, completing the unification that few thought could be finished without Cavour. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Today, many Italian cities like Turin, Trieste, Rome, Florence and Naples have important streets or squares named for him. The new Marina Militareaircraft carrier Cavour is also named in his honour. This unit was preceded by the famous battleship Conte di Cavour, which fought both in World War I and World War II, and a clipper ship, Camille Cavour. SONY VAIO VGN-NW51FB laptop keyboard
In 1865 a leading Liceo classico in Turin, the oldest high school in the city (founded 1568) and one among the oldest and most prominent ones in Italy, was named after him, and became Liceo classico Cavour. The whole (actual) name is Liceo Ginnasio statale "Camillo Benso di Cavour". It was formerly the College of Nobility, and the Royal College of Education of the Duchy of Savoy and of the Kingdom of Sardinia. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
The Piedmontese, following their defeat by Austria in the First Italian War of Independence, recognised their need for allies. This led Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour to attempt to establish relations with other European powers, partially through Piedmont's participation in the Crimean War. In the peace conference at Paris for the Crimean War, HP Pavilion DV6-1020el Laptop Keyboard
Cavour attempted to bring attention to efforts for Italian unification. He found Britain and France to be sympathetic, but entirely unwilling to go against Austrian wishes, as any movement towards Italian independence would necessarily threaten Austria's territory inLombardy and Venetia. TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
On January 14, 1858, Felice Orsini, an Italian, led an attempt on Napoleon III's life. This assassination attempt brought widespread sympathy for the Italian unification effort, and had a profound effect on Napoleon himself, who now was determined to help Piedmont against Austria in order to end the revolutionary activities that the governments inside Italy might allow to happen in the future. Emperor Napoleon III and Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour, TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 Laptop Keyboard
the prime minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, signed a secret treaty of alliance against Austria: France would help Sardinia to fight against Austria if attacked, and Sardinia would then give Nice and Savoy to France in return. This secret alliance served both countries: it helped with the Sardinian (Piedmontese) plan of unification of the Italian peninsulaunder the House of Savoy, and weakened Austria, a fiery adversary of Napoleon III's French Empire. ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard
Cavour, being unable to get the French help unless the Austrians attacked first, provoked Vienna with a series of military manoeuvers close to the border. Austria issued an ultimatum on April 23, 1859, asking for the complete demobilization of the Sardinian army, and when it was not heeded Austria started a war with Sardinia (April 29), thus drawing France into the conflict.[1] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard
The French army for the Italian campaign had 170,000 soldiers, 2,000 horsemen and 312 guns, half of the whole French army. The army was under the command of Napoleon III, divided into five corps: the I Corps, led by Achille Baraguey d'Hilliers, HP G62-a10EO Laptop Keyboard
the II Corps, led by Patrice MacMahon, the III Corps, led by François Certain Canrobert, the IV Corps, led by Adolphe Niel, and the V Corps, led by prince Napoleon. TheImperial Guard was commanded by Auguste Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ160P/C Laptop Keyboard
The Sardinian army had about 70,000 soldiers, 4,000 horsemen and 90 guns. It was divided into five divisions, led by Casterlbrugo, Manfredo Fanti, Giovanni Durando, Enrico Cialdini, and Domenico Cucchiari. Two volunteer formations, the Cacciatori delle Alpi and the Cacciatori degli Appennini, were also present. The commander in chief was Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, supported by Alfonso Ferrero la Marmora. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
The Austrian army fielded more men: it was composed of 220,000 soldiers, 824 guns and 22,000 horsemen and was led by Field Marshal Ferenc Graf Gyulay.
At the declaration of war, there were no French troops in Italy, so Marshal François Certain Canrobert moved into Piedmont in the first massive use of railways. ACER Ferrari 1100 Laptop Keyboard
The Austrian forces counted on a swift victory over the weaker Sardinian army before French forces could arrive in Piedmont. However, Count Gyulai, the commander of the Austrian troops in Lombardy, was very cautious, marching around the Ticino River in no specific direction for a while until eventually crossing it to begin the offensive. Unfortunately for him, DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
very heavy rains began to fall as soon as he did this, allowing the Piedmontese to flood the rice fields in front of his advance, slowing his army's march to a crawl. The Austrians under Gyulai eventually arrived in Vercelli, menacingTurin, but the Franco-Sardinian move to strengthen Alessandria and Po Riverbridges around Casale Monferrato forced them to fall back. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
On May 14, Napoleon III arrived in Alessandria, taking the command of the operations. The initial clash of the war was at Montebello on 20 May, a battle between an Austrian Corps under Stadion and a single division of the French I Corps under Forey. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
The Austrian contingent was three times as large, but the French were victorious, making Gyulai still more cautious. In early June, Gyulai had advanced to the rail center ofMagenta, leaving his army spread out. Napoleon III attacked the Ticino head on with part of his force while sending another large group of troops to the north to flank the Austrians. Dell Inspiron 2500 Laptop Keyboard
The plan worked, causing Gyulai to retreat east to the quadrilateral fortresses in Lombardy, where he was relieved of his post as commander.
Replacing Gyulai was Emperor Franz Josef I himself. He planned to defend the well- fortified Austrian territory behind the Mincio River. SONY VAIO PCG-F520 Laptop Keyboard
The Piedmontese-French army had taken Milan and slowly marched further east to finish off Austria in this war before Prussia could get involved. The Austrians found out that the French had halted at Brescia, and decided that they should counterattack along the river Chiese. ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard
The two armies met accidentally around Solferino, precipitating a confused series of battles. A French corps held off three Austrian corps all day at Medole, keeping them from joining the larger battle around Solferino, SONY VAIO VGN-CR420D laptop keyboard
where, after a day- long battle, the French broke through. Ludwig von Benedek with the Austrian VIII Corps was separated from the main force, defended Pozzolengo against the Piedmontese part of the opposing army. This they did successfully, but the entire Austrian army retreated after the breakthrough at Solferino, withdrawing back into the Quadrilateral.[2] SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
At the same time, in the northern part of Lombardy, the Italian volunteers of Giuseppe Garibaldi's Hunters of the Alpsdefeated the Austrians at Varese and Como and the Piedmontese-French navy landed 3,000 soldiers and conquered the islands of Losinj (Lussino) and Cres(Cherso) in Dalmatia.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-CR220E laptop keyboard
Fear of involvement by the German states led Napoleon to seek a way out of the war, so he signed an armistice with Austria in Villafranca. Most of Lombardy, with its capital Milan (excepting only the Austrian fortresses of Mantua and Legnago and the surrounding territory), was transferred from Austria to France, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
which would immediately cede these territories to Sardinia. The rulers of Central Italy, who had been expelled by revolution shortly after the beginning of the war, were to be restored.
This deal, made by Napoleon behind the backs of his Sardinian allies, led to great outrage in Sardinia — Cavour himself resigned in protest. However, the terms of Villafranca SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
were never to come into effect: although they were reaffirmed by the final Treaty of Zürich in November, by then the agreement had become a dead letter. The central Italian states were occupied by the Piedmontese, who showed no willingness to restore the previous rulers, and the French showed no willingness to force them to abide by the terms of the treaty. HP G61-420SL Laptop Keyboard
The Austrians were left to look on in frustration at the French failure to carry out the terms of the treaty.
The next year, in 1860, with French and British approval, the central Italian states — Duchy of Parma, Duchy of Modena, Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Papal Legations — were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
and France would take its deferred reward, Savoy and Nice. This latter move was vehemently opposed by Italian national hero Garibaldi, a native of Nice, and directly led to Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, which would complete the preliminary unification of Italy.[4] SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
The Crimean War (pronounced /kraɪˈmiːən/ or /krɨˈmiːən/) (October 1853 – February 1856)[7][8]:7 was a conflict in which Russia lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. While neutral, the Austrian Empire also played a role in stopping the Russians. TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
The immediate issue involved the rights of Christians in the Holy Land, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Orthodox. SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. Russia lost and the Ottomans gained a twenty-year respite from Russian pressure. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The Christians were granted a degree of official equality and the Orthodox gained control of the Christian churches in dispute.[9]:415 Russia survived, gained a new appreciation for its religious diversity, and launched a reform program with far-reaching consequences.[10] SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
Russia and the Ottoman Empire went to war in October 1853 over Russia's rights to protect Orthodox Christians. Russia gained the upper hand after destroying the Ottoman fleet at the Black Sea port of Sinope; to stop Russia's conquest, France and Britain entered in March 1854. Most of the fighting took place for control of the Black Sea, SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
with land battles on the Crimean peninsula in southern Russia. The Russians held their great fortress at Sevastopol for over a year. After it fell, a peace was arranged at Paris in March 1856. The religion issue had already been resolved. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
The main results were that the Black Sea was neutralised—Russia would not have any warships there—and the two vassals Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent under nominal Ottoman rule. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
There were smaller campaigns in eastern Anatolia, Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. In Russia, this war is also known as the "Eastern War" (Russian: Восточная война, Vostochnaya Voina). FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard
The war transformed the region. Because of battles, population exchanges, and nationalist movements incited by the war, the present-day states of Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and regions such as Crimea and the Caucasus all changed in small or large ways due to this conflict.[11] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Crimean War is notorious for logistical, medical and tactical failure on both sides. The naval side saw both a successful Allied campaign which eliminated most of the ships of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea, and a successful blockade by the Royal Navy in the Baltic. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
It was one of the first "modern" wars because it saw the first use of major technologies, such as railways and telegraphs.[12](Preface) It is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole, who pioneered contrasting modern medical practices while treating the wounded. The war was one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports andphotographs. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Russia, as a member of the Holy Alliance, had operated as the "police of Europe", maintaining the balance of power that had been established in the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
and expected gratitude. It wanted a free hand in settling its problems with the Ottoman Empire – the "sick man of Europe". Britain could not tolerate Russian dominance of Ottoman affairs as that would challenge the British role in the eastern Mediterranean.[13] ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
For over 200 years, Russia had been expanding in a southerly direction toward the warm water ports of the Black Sea. Warm water ports that did not freeze over in the winter were essential for the development of Russian year-round trade and development of a strong navy.[9]:11 HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
This brought the emerging Russian state into conflict with the Ukrainian Cossacks and then with the Crimean Tatars.[14] When Russia conquered these groups and gained possession of Ukraine, the Ottoman Empire lost its buffer zone against Russian expansion, HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
and Russia and the Ottoman Empire fell into direct conflict. The conflict with the Ottoman Empire also presented a religious issue of importance, as Russia saw itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians, many of whom lived under Ottoman control.[9](ch 1) DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The immediate chain of events leading to France and Britain declaring war on Russia on 27 and 28 March 1854 came from the ambition of the French emperor Napoleon III to restore the grandeur of France. He wanted Catholic support that would come his way if he attacked Eastern Orthodoxy, as sponsored by Russia.[9]:103 The Marquis Charles deSAMSUNG NP-Q320-JS03UK laptop keyboard
La Valette was a zealous Catholic and a leading member of the "clerical party" which demanded French protection of the Roman Catholic rights to the holy places in Palestine. Napoleon appointed La Valette in May 1851 as his ambassador to the Porte (the Ottoman Empire).[9]:7–9 The appointment was made with the intent to force the Ottomans to recognise France as the "sovereign authority" over the Christian population.[12]:19 Packard Bell Easynote TK87 laptop keyboard
Russia disputed this attempted change in authority. Pointing to two more treaties, one in 1757 and the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Ottomans reversed their earlier decision, renouncing the French treaty and insisting that Russia was the protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
Napoleon III responded with a show of force, sending the ship of the line Charlemagne to the Black Sea. This action was a violation of the London Straits Convention.[12]:19 However, the Ottomans knew that the Charlemagne sailed at a speed of 8½ knots and could defeat the technologically inferior Russian and Ottoman navies combined.[9]:104 Thus, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
France's show of force presented a real threat, and when combined with aggressive diplomacy and money, induced Sultan Abdülmecid I to accept a new treaty, confirming France and the Roman Catholic Church as the supreme Christian authority with control over the Roman Catholic holy places and possession of the keys to the Church of the Nativity, previously held by the Greek Orthodox Church.[12]:20HP Pavilion dv6-2105ew laptop keyboard
Tsar Nicholas I then deployed his 4th and 5th army corps along the River Danube, and had Count Karl Nesselrode, his foreign minister, undertake talks with the Ottomans. Nesselrode confided to Sir George Hamilton Seymour, the British ambassador in Saint Petersburg: TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 laptop keyboard
[The dispute over the holy places] had assumed a new character—that the acts of injustice towards the Greek church which it had been desired to prevent had been perpetrated and consequently that now the object must be to find a remedy for these wrongs. The success of French negotiations at ASUS A8M laptop keyboard
Constantinople was to be ascribed solely to intrigue and violence—violence which had been supposed to be the ultima ratio of kings, being, it had been seen, the means which the present ruler of France was in the habit of employing in the first instance.[12]:21COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
As conflict emerged over the issue of the holy places, Nicholas I and Nesselrode began a diplomatic offensive, which they hoped would prevent either Britain's or France's interfering in any conflict between Russia and the Ottomans, as well as to prevent their allying. SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
Nicholas began courting Britain by means of conversations with the British ambassador, George Hamilton Seymour, in January and February 1853.[9]:105 Nicholas insisted that he no longer wished to expand Imperial Russia[9]:105 but that he had an obligation to the Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire.[9]:105GATEWAY MG2 laptop keyboard
The Tsar next dispatched a diplomat, Prince Menshikov, on a special mission to the Ottoman Sublime Porte in February 1853.[9]:107 By previous treaties, the sultan was committed "to protect the (Eastern Orthodox) Christian religion and its churches". Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new sened, a formal convention with the power of an international treaty, Lenovo ThinkPad T510-4314 laptop keyboard
under which the Ottomans would allow to Russia the same rights of intervention in the affairs of the Orthodox religion as recently allowed France with respect to Catholic churches and churchmen.[15] Such a treaty would allow Russia to control the Orthodox Church's hierarchy in the Ottoman Empire. Menshikov arrived at Istanbul on 16 February 1853, on the steam-powered warship Gromovnik (Thunderer).[16]:4–5ACER TravelMate 3010 laptop keyboard
The ship (Thunderer) that Menshikov sailed to Constantinople aboard was aptly named.[9]:108 Once in Constantinople, Menshikov proceeded to break protocol at the Porte. At his first meeting with the sultan, he insulted the Turks by appearing in civilian clothes rather than customary and traditional military uniform for his official welcome to the Porte.[9] COMPAQ Presario V3628TU laptop keyboard
:109 He then proceeded to condemn the Ottomans' concessions to the French. Menshikov also began demanding the replacement of highly placed Ottoman civil servants—particularly Fuad Efendi the Ottoman foreign minister.[9]:109DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Since the departure in January 1853 of Stratford Canning, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, the British embassy at Constantinople had been run by Hugh Rose, chargé d'affaires for the British.[9]:110 Using his abundant resources within the Ottoman Empire, Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movements along the Danube frontier, HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission to the Porte. On 8 March 1853, Rose, using his authority as the British representative to the Ottomans, ordered Vice-Admiral Sir James Whitley Deans Dundas, stationed on the island of Malta, to bring a British squadron of warships to Urla, İzmir, on the Ionian coast of Turkey.[16]: TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
5 However, Sir James Dundas refused to leave Malta[16]:5 and resented the diplomat (Rose) for believing he could interfere in the Admiralty's business. Within a week, Rose's actions were cancelled.[17] The French fleet sailed from Toulon on 22 March 1853, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and headed for the Bosporus.[9]:112 Their intent was to head off any naval attack on Constantinople on the west side of the narrows at Bosporus. Thus, only the French sent a naval task force to support the Ottomans. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
In February 1853, the British government of Lord Aberdeen, the prime minister, re-appointed Stratford Canning as British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire.[9]:110 Having resigned the ambassadorship in January, he had been replaced byBaron Strathnairn. Lord Stratford then turned around and sailed back to Constantinople, ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard
arriving there on 5 April 1853. There he convinced the Sultan to reject the Russian treaty proposal, as compromising the independence of the Turks. The Leader of the Opposition in the British House of Commons, Benjamin Disraeli, HP QT6D Laptop Keyboard
blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war inevitable, thus starting the process which would eventually force the Aberdeen government to resign in January 1855, over the war.
Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy toward the end of June 1853, HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
the Tsar sent armies under the commands of Field Marshall Ivan Paskevich and General Mikhail Gorchakov across the Pruth River into the Ottoman-controlled Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. Fewer than half of the 80,000 Russian soldiers who crossed the Pruth in 1853 survived. By far, most of the deaths would result from sickness rather than combat,[9]:118–119 for the Russian army still suffered from medical service that ranged from bad to none. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
Russia had previously obtained from the Ottoman Empire recognition of the Tsar's role as special guardian of the Orthodox Christians in Moldavia and Wallachia. Now Russia used the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the protection of the Christian sites in the Holy Land as a pretext for Russian occupation of these Danubian provinces. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Nicholas believed that the European powers, especially Austria, would not object strongly to the annexation of a few neighbouring Ottoman provinces, especially considering that Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution in 1849. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
In July 1853, the Tsar sent his troops into the Danubian Principalities. Britain, hoping to maintain the Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against the expansion of Russian power in Asia, sent a fleet to the Dardanelles, where it joined another fleet sent by France.[18] HP G61-420SL laptop keyboard
At the same time, however, the European powers hoped for a diplomatic compromise. The representatives of the four neutralGreat Powers—Britain, France, Austria and Prussia—met in Vienna, where they drafted a note which they hoped would be acceptable to both the Russians and the Ottomans. SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard
The peace terms arrived at by the four powers at the Vienna Conference were delivered to the Russians by the Austrian Foreign Minister Count Karl Von Buol on 5 December 1853. The note met with the approval of Nicholas I; HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
however, Abdülmecid I rejected the proposal, feeling that the document's poor phrasing left it open to many different interpretations. Britain, France, and Austria united in proposing amendments to mollify the Sultan, but the court of St Petersburg ignored their suggestions.[9]:143SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M laptop keyboard
Britain and France set aside the idea of continuing negotiations, but Austria and Prussia did not believe that the rejection of the proposed amendments justified the abandonment of the diplomatic process. Nonetheless, the Sultan formally declared war on Russia on 23 October 1853,[7] Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
and proceeded to the attack, his armies moving on the Russian army near the Danube later that month. Russia and the Ottoman empire massed forces on two main fronts, the Caucasus and the Danube. Ottoman leader Omar Pashamanaged to achieve some victories on the Danubian front.[19]In the Caucasus, the Ottomans were able to stand ground with the help of Chechen Muslims led by Imam Shamil.[20] SONY VAIO VGN-CR24G laptop keyboard
Nicholas responded by dispatching warships, which in the Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853 destroyed a patrol squadron of Ottoman frigates and corvettes while they were anchored in port in northern Anatolia. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The destruction of the Ottoman ships provided Britain and France with the casus belli ("case for war") for declaring war against Russia on the side of the Ottoman Empire. By 28 March 1854, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian Principalities, Britain and France formally declared war.[21] HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
Nicholas felt that because of Russian assistance in suppressing the Hungarian revolution of 1848, Austria would side with him, or at the very least remain neutral. Austria, however, felt threatened by the Russian troops. When Britain and France demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from the principalities, Austria supported them and, though it did not immediately declare war on Russia, it refused to guarantee its neutrality. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
Russia then withdrew its troops from the Danubian principalities, which were then occupied by Austria for the duration of the war. This removed the original grounds for war, but Britain and France continued with hostilities. Determined to address the Eastern Question by putting an end to the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire, the allies proposed several conditions for a peaceful resolution, including: TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
The Danube campaign opened when the Russians occupied the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in May 1853, bringing their forces to the north bank of the river Danube. In response, the Ottoman Empire also moved its forces up to the river. It established strongholds at Vidin in the west, and Silistra,[9]:172–84 which was located in the east, near the mouth of the Danube. SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
The Turkish/Ottoman move up the Danube River was also of concern to the Austrians, who moved forces into Transylvaniain response. However, the Austrians had begun to fear the Russians more than the Turks. Indeed, TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
like the British, the Austrians were now coming to see that an intact Ottoman Empire was necessary as a bulwark against the Russians. Accordingly, the Austrians resisted Russian diplomatic attempts to join the war on the Russian side. Austria remained neutral in the Crimean War.[22] SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
Following the Ottoman ultimatum in September 1853, forces under the Ottoman general Omar Pasha crossed the Danube at Vidin and captured Calafat in October 1853. Simultaneously, in the east, the Ottomans crossed the Danube at Silistra and attacked the Russians at Oltenița. The resulting Battle of Oltenița HP Pavilion dv6-3217cl laptop keyboard
was the first engagement following the declaration of war. The Russians counterattacked, but were beaten back.[23] On 31 December 1853, the Ottoman forces at Kalafat moved against the Russian force at Chetatea or Cetate, a small village nine miles north of Kalafat, and engaged them on 6 January 1854. The battle began when the Russians made a move to recapture Kalafat. SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard
Most of the heavy fighting, however, took place in and around Chetatea until the Russians were driven out of the village. Despite the setback at Chetatea, on 28 January 1854, Russian forces laid siege to Calafat. The siege would continue until May 1854 when the Russians lifted the siege. The Ottomans would also later beat the Russians in battle at Caracal.[9]:130–43SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
In the spring of 1854 the Russians again advanced, crossing the Danube River into the Turkish province of Dobruja. By April 1854, the Russians had reached the lines of Trajan's Wall where they were finally halted. In the center, the Russian forces crossed the Danube and laid siege to Silistra from 14 April until 23 June 1854.[24] Compaq Presario CQ56-105TU laptop keyboard
In the west, the Russians were dissuaded from attacking Vidin by the presence of the Austrian forces, which had swelled to 280,000 men. On 28 May 1854 a protocol of the Vienna Conference was signed by Austria and Russia. One of the aims of the Russian advance had been to encourage the Orthodox Christian Serbs and Bulgarians living under Ottoman rule to rebel. However, when the Russian troops actually crossed the River Pruth into Moldavia, ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
the Orthodox Christians still showed no interest in rising up against the Turks.[9]:131, 137 Adding to the worries of Nicholas I was the concern that Austria would enter the war against the Russians and attack his armies on the western flank. Indeed, after attempting to mediate a peaceful settlement between Russia and Turkey, HP 431416-001 Laptop Keyboard
the Austrians entered the war on the side of Turkey with an attack against the Russians in the Principalities which threatened to cut off the Russian supply lines. Accordingly, the Russians were forced to raise the siege of Silistra on 23 June 1854, and begin abandoning the Principalities.[9]:185HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
In June 1854 the Allied expeditionary force landed at Varna, but made little advance from their base there.[9]:175–176In July 1854, the Turks under Omar Pasha crossed the Danube into Wallachia and on 7 July 1854, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
engaged the Russians in the city of Giurgiu and conquered it. The capture of Giurgiu by the Turks immediately threatened Bucharest in Wallachia with capture by the same Turk army. On 26 July 1854, Tsar Nicholas I ordered the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Principalities. Also in late July 1854, following up on the Russian retreat, the French staged an expedition against the Russian forces still in Dobruja, but this was a failure.[9]:188–190SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D Laptop Keyboard
By then the Russian withdrawal was complete, except for the fortress towns of northern Dobruja, while their place in the Principalities was taken by the Austrians, as a neutral peacekeeping force.[9]:189 There was little further action on this front after the autumn of 1854 and in September the allied force boarded ships at Varna to move up the Dardanelles to the Black Sea to invade the Crimean Peninsula.[9]:198TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 Laptop Keyboard
The naval operations of the Crimean war commenced with the dispatch, in summer of 1853, of the French and British fleets to the Black Sea region, to support the Ottomans and to dissuade the Russians from encroachment. By June 1853 both fleets were stationed at Besikas bay, outside the Dardanelles. With the Russian occupation of the Danube Principalities in October they moved to the Bosphorus and in November entered the Black Sea. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
During this period the Russian Black Sea Fleet was operating against Ottoman coastal traffic between Constantinople (currently named Istanbul) and the Caucasus ports, while the Ottoman fleet sought to protect this supply line. HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard
The clash came on 30 November 1853 when a Russian fleet attacked an Ottoman force in the harbor at Sinop, and destroyed it.[25] There was little additional naval action until March 1854 when on the declaration of war the British frigateFurious was fired on outside Odessa harbour. In response the British fleet bombarded the port, causing much damage to the town. HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee Laptop Keyboard
In June the fleets transported the Allied expeditionary forces to Varna, in support of the Ottoman operations on the Danube; in September they again transported the armies, this time to the Crimea. The Russian fleet during this time declined to engage the allies, preferring to maintain a "fleet in being"; this strategy failed when Sevastopol, DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
the main port and where most of the Black Sea fleet was based, came under siege. The Russians were reduced to scuttling their warships as blockships, after stripping them of their guns and men to reinforce batteries on shore. During the siege, FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard
the Russians lost four 110- or 120-gun, 3-decker ships of the line, twelve 84-gun 2-deckers and four 60-gun frigates in the Black Sea, plus a large number of smaller vessels.During the rest of the campaign the allied fleets remained in control of the Black Sea, ensuring the various fronts were kept supplied. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
In April 1855 they supported an invasion of Kerch and operated against Taganrog in the Sea of Azov. In September they moved against Russian installations in the Dnieper estuary, attacking Kinburn in the first use of ironclad ships in naval warfare. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
The Russians evacuated Wallachia and Moldavia in late July 1854. With the evacuation of the Danubian Principalities the immediate cause of war was withdrawn and the war might have ended at this time.[9]:192 However, war fever among the public in both Britain and France had been whipped up by the press in both countries to the degree that politicians found it untenable to propose ending the war at this point. SONY VAIO PCG-FR215H laptop keyboard
Indeed the Peelite Government of George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen fell on 30 January 1855 on a no-confidence vote[26] because Aberdeen was reluctant to sign on to a plan of extending the war.[9]:311Accordingly, allied troops sailed from Varna, on the coast of the Turkish province of Bulgaria to land in the Crimea, IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
with the intent of besieging the city of Sevastopol, home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet. In the eyes of the British and the French, the Russian fleet was a threat to the Mediterranean. The British and the French both wished to keep the Russians an effectively landlocked power for as long as possible. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
If the Russian Black Sea Fleet were allowed through the Straits of the Dardanelles, the Mediterranean might then effectively be under contested control between British, French, and Russian interests. HP 6530S laptop keyboard
Additionally, Russian maritime and military access to the Mediterranean meant that the balance of power in Europe might thereafter be forever changed to the detriment of the Western European powers. Seeing this as an unacceptable outcome of a Russian victory in their war with the Turks—as the war had indeed begun, and which the Turks, whom the Allies came to aid, had started. HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee laptop keyboard
The Crimean campaign opened in September 1854 with the landing of the allied expeditionary force on the sandy beaches of Calamita Bay on the south west coast of the Crimean Peninsula.[9]:201 Their main strategic goal was to capture the Russian fortresses at Sevastopol located to the south of Calamita Bay.[9] TOSHIBA Satellite L355-S7812 laptop keyboard
:194 However, to protect the allies' left flank from attack by the Russians, the allied armies first moved north and west along the coast of the Peninsula to occupy the city ofEupatoria.[9]:201 After the crossing the Alma River on 30 September 1854,[27] ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
the allies moved on to invest Sevastopol. The Russian army retreated to the interior. A Russian assault on the allied supply base at Balaclava was rebuffed on 25 October 1854.[28]:521–527 The Battle of Balaclava is noteworthy for the bravery of two British units. The93rd Highlanders stood solidly against repeated attacks by a larger Russian force.[28]:523Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
This stand led the 93rd Highlanders to be remembered in history as the "Thin Red Line". The second British unit to gain immortality in the Battle of Balaclava was the Light Cavalry Brigade under the command of the Earl of Cardigan. An extremely ambiguous order sent the brigade on the near suicidal charge of the Light Brigade into the north Valley of the Balaclava battlefield.[28]:524 Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
The heights around the north Valley were brimming with Russian artillery which bombarded the Light Brigade. Of the original nearly 700-man strength of the Light Brigade, 278 were killed or wounded. The Light Brigade was memorialised in the famous poem by Alfred Lord Tennysoncalled the "Charge of the Light Brigade". HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
Although traditionally, the charge of the Light Brigade was looked upon as a glorious but wasted sacrifice of good men and horses, recent historians have revised this conclusion somewhat by stating that the charge of the Light Brigade did succeed in at least some of its objectives.[9]:252 TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 laptop keyboard
The aim of any cavalry charge is to scatter the enemy lines and frighten the enemy off the battlefield. In this regard, even the Russians admitted that the charge of Light Brigade had so un-nerved the Russian cavalry, Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
which had previously been routed by the Heavy Brigade, that the Russian Cavalry was set to full-scale flight by the subsequent charge of the Light Brigade.[9]:252 Thus, the charge of the Light Brigade is now viewed in some circles as having achieved at least part of its objective. HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa laptop keyboard
The failure of the British and French to follow up on the Battle of Balaclava led directly to another and much more bloody battle—the Battle of Inkerman.[28]:526 On 5 November 1854, the Russians attempted to raise the siege at Sevastopol with an attack against the allies near the town of Inkerman which resulted in another allied victory.[29] ACER Aspire One D250-1151 laptop keyboard
Meanwhile at Sevastopol, the allies had surrounded the city with entrenchments and, in October 1854, unleashed an all–out bombardment (the first of many) against the city's defences. Winter, and a deteriorating supply situation on both sides, led to a halt in ground operations. Sevastopol remained invested by the allies, while the allied armies were hemmed in by the Russian army in the interior. SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
In February 1855 the Russians attacked the allied base at Eupatoria,[9]:321–322 where an Ottoman army had built up and was threatening Russian supply routes. The battle saw the Russians defeated[9]:321 and led to a change in command. The strain of directing the war had taken its toll on the health of Tsar Nicholas.[30]:96SONY Vaio VGN-AW160J/Q laptop keyboard
With his resistance down, Nicholas caught a cold in February 1855. On 8 February 1855, the Tsar's cold developed into influenza.[9]:321 News of the Russian defeat at Eupatoria reached the Tsar in St. HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard
Petersburg on 16 February 1855 and depressed him more than before. The Tsar's condition worsened and he caught pneumonia.[9]:322 He died on 18 February 1855 according to the Julian calendar.[30]:98 Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
On the allied side the emphasis of the siege at Sevastopol shifted to the right-hand sector of the lines, against the fortifications on Malakoff hill.[9]:339 In March there was fighting by the French over the fort at Mamelon, located on a hill in front of the Malakoff. Several weeks of fighting saw little change in the front line, and the Mamelon remained in Russian hands. DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard
In April 1855, the allies staged a second all-out bombardment, leading to an artillery duel with the Russian guns,[9]:340 but no ground assault followed.[9]:341 On 24 May 1855, sixty ships containing 7,000 French, 5,000 Turkish and 3,000 British troops set off for a raid on the city of Kerch east of Sevastopol in an attempt to open another front on the Crimean peninsula and to cut off Russian supplies.[9]: ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
344 The allies landed the force at Kerch. The plan was to outflank the Russian army. The landings were successful, but the force made little progress thereafter. In June a third bombardment was followed by a successful attack on the Mamelon, ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard
but a follow-up assault on the Malakoff failed with heavy losses. During this time the garrison commander, Admiral Nakhimov, suffered a fatal bullet wound to the head and died on 30 June 1855.[9]:378HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
In August the Russians again made an attack on the base at Balaclava. The resulting battle of Tchernaya was a defeat for the Russians, who suffered heavy casualties. September saw the final assault. On 5 September another French bombardment (the sixth) was followed by an assault by the French Army on 8 September resulting in the capture of the Malakoff by the French, HP Pavilion DV7-4100 Laptop Keyboard
and the collapse of the Russian defences. Meanwhile the British captured the Great Redan, just south of the city of Sevastopol. The city fell on 9 September 1855 after a year-long siege.[30]:106
The Governor of Taganrog, Yegor Tolstoy, ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
and lieutenant-general Ivan Krasnov refused the ultimatum, responding that "Russians never surrender their cities". The British–French squadron bombarded Taganrog for 6½ hours and landed 300 troops near the Old Stairway in downtown Taganrog, but they were thrown back by Don Cossacks and a volunteer corps. TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard
In July 1855 the allied squadron tried to go past Taganrog to Rostov on Don, entering the Don River through the Mius River. On 12 July 1855 HMS Jasper grounded near Taganrog thanks to a fisherman who repositioned the buoys into shallow waters. The Cossacks captured the gunboat with all of its guns and blew it up. The third siege attempt was made 19–31 August 1855, HP Pavilion DV6-1103ax Laptop Keyboard
but the city was already fortified and the squadron could not approach close enough for landing operations. The allied fleet left the Gulf of Taganrog on 2 September 1855, with minor military operations along theAzov Sea coast continuing until late autumn 1855. HP Pavilion ze4325 Laptop Keyboard
In summer of 1853 the Ottoman forces held strongholds at Kars, Batum, and Erzurum, with lesser forts at Ardahan andBayazid. The Ottoman forces planned an invasion of Georgia but after some initial success were unable to maintain this and were forced to retreat. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Russian forces in the region were spread thinly, due to the demands of holding down the region against insurrection, but during 1853 were reinforced. In September 1853 there were a number of clashes between Russian and Ottoman forces. Additionally, there were later battles at Fort St. Nicolas in October 1853 and twice at Alexandropol in October 1853 and again in December 1853. On 26 November 1853, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
the Russians beat the Ottoman armed forces at the battle of Akhaltsikh. On 1 December General Bebutov led 10,000 soldiers and 32 guns to win a victory over a 36,000-man Ottoman Army under Ahmed Pasha at the battle of Bashkadiklar.[31] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
In the spring of 1854 the Russians planned an invasion of Ottoman territory. On 16 June Prince Andronikov with 10,000 soldiers and 18 guns achieved a victory over a 34,000-man Ottoman Army at the Cholok river; on 31 July Russian forces seized Bayazid; IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
on 5 August General Bebutov with 18,000 men and 64 guns had successfully waged the battle of Kurekdere, 11 miles from Kars. Following these encounters there was little further action that year.
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However they settled down to a siege on 18 June, which had became almost total from the middle of August. The siege had been successful and Kars surrendered on 28 November 1855. Commander of its garrison Mehmet Vasif Pasha had yielded the fortress keys, 12 Ottoman banners and 18,500 soldiers as captives. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
As a result of this operation the Russian Army assumed control not merely over the forts and city, but also over the whole area including Ardahan, Kagyzman, Oltu and part of Basen district. Meanwhile the Ottoman army at Batum invaded Georgia, but after an inconclusive clash at the Ingur river the offensive collapsed and they retreated to Batum. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The Baltic was a forgotten theatre of the Crimean War. The popularisation of events elsewhere had overshadowed the significance of this theatre, which was close to Saint Petersburg, the Russian capital. In April 1854 an Anglo-French fleet was sent into the Baltic to attack the Russian seaport of Kronstadtand the Russian fleet stationed there.[32] TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
In August 1854 the combined British and French fleet returned to Kronstadt for another attempt. The outnumberedRussian Baltic Fleet confined its movements to the areas around its fortifications. At the same time, British and French commanders Sir Charles Napier andAlexandre Ferdinand Parseval-Deschenes—although COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard
they led the largest fleet assembled since the Napoleonic Wars—considered the Sveaborg fortress too well-defended to engage. Thus, shelling of the Russian batteries was limited to two attempts in the summers of 1854 and 1855, HP Mini 110-3001ev laptop keyboard
and initially, the attacking fleets limited their actions to blockading the Russian trade in the Gulf of Finland.[33] Naval attacks on other ports, such as the ones at Hogland, were more successful.[34] Additionally, they conducted raids on less fortified sections of the Finnish coast. Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard