Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian:Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo) is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of concreteand stone,[1] SONY VAIO VGN-CS215J/W laptop keyboard
it was the largest amphitheatre of the Roman Empire, and is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and engineering. It is the largest amphitheatre in the world.[2]
The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in 70 AD,[3] and was completed in 80 AD under his successor and heir Titus.[4] HP Pavilion dv6-2110ei laptop keyboard
Further modifications were made during the reign ofDomitian (81–96).[5] These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association with their family name (Flavius). HP Mini 1140NR laptop keyboard
The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators,[6][7] and was used for gladiatorialcontests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, r SONY VAIO VGN-N27GH/B laptop keyboard
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e-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-209TU laptop keyboard
a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, TOSHIBA Satellite a10-501 laptop keyboard
as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[8]
The Colosseum, like all the Historic Centre of Rome, Properties of the Holy See in Italy and the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, HP 576835-001 laptop keyboard
was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1980. In 2007 the complex was also included among the New7Wonders of the World, following a competition organized by New Open World Corporation (NOWC). ASUS F81 laptop keyboard
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, following the reign of Nero.[9] This name is still used in modern English, HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic[10][11] as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[12]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby[5] TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
(the statue of Nero was named after the Colossus of Rhodes).[citation needed] This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-205EF laptop keyboard
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted:Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[13] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[14] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese). ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[5] in around 70–72 AD, funded by the spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem.[15] The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[14] HP 636376-001 laptop keyboard
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories,[14] placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. HP Pavilion dv6-2019er laptop keyboard
Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca laptop keyboard
which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5245 laptop keyboard
The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[5] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity. HP G42-368TX laptop keyboard
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[16]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[17] and 508. FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 laptop keyboard
The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.[14] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. FUJITSU CP307045-01 laptop keyboard
The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[14] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[18] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, DELL Latitude D820 Laptop Keyboard
Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-15V Laptop Keyboard
and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.[14] HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). SONY VAIO VGN NR310E/T Laptop Keyboard
In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[19] HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, HP HDX18-1080EG Laptop Keyboard
using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[21] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[22] Elton John (September 2005),[23] and Billy Joel (July 2006). Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. HP 537753-001 Laptop Keyboard
It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard
The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[14] However, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca Laptop Keyboard
having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall. TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-S5151 Laptop Keyboard
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by apodium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthianpilasters.[24] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractableawning, DELL Inspiron 1520 Laptop Keyboard
known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[5] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters atMisenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[25]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[5] HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[14] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit. SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorialclass, ASUS X53 Laptop Keyboard
who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). HP 540 Laptop Keyboard
The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (thesummum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.[14]
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.[26]
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
[14] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum(literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, ACER Aspire 5720 Laptop Keyboard
but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[14] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard
Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[14]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. SAMSUNG BA59-02709A Laptop Keyboard
Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulicmechanisms[14] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnushad its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
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Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools. ASUS F80C Laptop Keyboard
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; theSanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.[14] ASUS V020662BS1 laptop keyboard
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard
and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, orvenatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, HP Mini 110-3000 CTO laptop keyboard
panthers, leopards,bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. HP Mini 110-3103sl laptop keyboard
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. ASUS V020662BS1 laptop keyboard
There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[14] HP Mini 210-1050EI laptop keyboard
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, HP Pavilion dv6-2192el laptop keyboard
and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard
They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death. COMPAQ Presario CQ40 laptop keyboard
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for citizens of the European Union (EU) is partially subsidised, HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
and entrance is free for EU citizens under eighteen or over sixty-five years of age.[27] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. HP Pavilion dv6-3103er laptop keyboard
Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[28] SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVIled the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[29][30] on Good Fridays.[8] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
In 2011 Diego Della Valle, head of the shoe firm Tod's, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a €25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years.[31][needs update] HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
There are no historical records or physical evidence as to the use of the Colosseum, or any other amphitheatre, as a place of execution for Christians.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th centuryMirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
which claims the Circus Flaminius – but not the Colosseum – as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, SONY VAIO VGN-FW190NDH Laptop Keyboard
on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 bookRoma ex ethnica sacra. HP Pavilion DV7-2122tx Laptop Keyboard
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. ACER Aspire 4920 Laptop Keyboard
The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, ASUS U3S Laptop Keyboard
living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). GATEWAY V030946FS1 US laptop keyboard
Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned.[14] 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
One other romantic reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported on the animals brought there from all corners of the empire.
The Flavian dynasty was a Roman Imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between AD 69 and AD 96, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69–79), DELL NSK-DE101 laptop keyboard
and his two sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho died in quick succession,Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH laptop keyboard
His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the Eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian Emperor in his place. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favour of the Flavian forces, ACER Aspire 9120 laptop keyboard
who entered Rome on December 20. The following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign. Compaq Presario CQ62-a50SH laptop keyboard
The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash and lava. SONY VAIO VGN-FS395VP laptop keyboard
One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70, following the failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between 77 and 83, Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus. HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
The Flavians initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. GATEWAY M-6813M Laptop Keyboard
A massive building programme was enacted to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.
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He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nervan-Antonian dynasty.
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD.[1] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
One such family were the Flavians, orgens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian's grandfather, Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 Laptop Keyboard
Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.[2] Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's sonTitus Flavius Sabinus I.[3] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collectorin Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland)). HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patriciangens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.[3]
Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had two sons, DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45).[4] Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74.[5] The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
aedile andpraetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.[6] Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,[7] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68).[8] Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
and maximize achievements under EmperorClaudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus.[9] By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66.[10] HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
From c. 57 to 59, Titus was a military tribune in Germania, and later served in Britannia. His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65.[11] Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. IBM ThinkPad T40p 2668 Laptop Keyboard
However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65.[12] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.[13][14] He never re-married. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[15] FUJITSU Lifebook E8310 Laptop Keyboard
The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.[15] During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.[16] SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon.[17] The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to the Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions.[18][19] He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion.[20] HP Pavilion dv6-2131el laptop keyboard
With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across the Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem.[20]
On 9 June 68, Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
amidst growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him theJulio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, HP Mini 210-2103tu laptop keyboard
during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitelliusand Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, HP 640208-001 Laptop Keyboard
then governor ofHispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.[21] Before reaching Italy however, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[22]
Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome.[14] SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.[23]When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.[24] Lenovo 45N2036 Laptop Keyboard
Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.[24] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.[25] HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
In Rome meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression.[26]Support for the old emperor was waning however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.[27] In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II,[28] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.[29] On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill.[30] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters.[30] SONY VAIO PCG-FR495EP laptop keyboard
By the afternoon of 20 December Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; HP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.[30]The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.[31] SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate.[30] HP Compaq G50-124NR laptop keyboard
Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. In early 70, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Vespasian was still in Egypt however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.[32] By the end 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. DELL NSK-DG101 laptop keyboard
Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus, aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians.[33] HP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, such as the institution of the tax on urinals, Compaq Presario CQ56-103EG laptop keyboard
and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him.[34] Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.[35] TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
Vespasian died of natural causes on June 23, 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus.[36] The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.[37] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79 and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians.[38] TOSHIBA Satellite A300-1BZ laptop keyboard
In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80,[39] but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79, and the fire of Rome of 80.[40] Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult, TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6829 laptop keyboard
deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian.[41][42] After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on September 13, 81, SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
and was deified by the Roman Senate.[43]
Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius. SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage,[44]expanded the border defenses of the Empire,[45] and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome.[46] In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland,[47] but in Dacia, ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi laptop keyboard
Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians.[48] On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. ACER 90.4C507.01D Laptop Keyboard
The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, ACER KB.INT00.058 Laptop Keyboard
Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's.[49] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/W Laptop Keyboard
while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.[50]Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch.[51] TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard
The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius.[52] ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi Laptop Keyboard
He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.[53] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
the censorship, and perhaps most remarkably, was given command of the Praetorian Guard.[54] Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.[55] HP COMPAQ NC6320 Laptop Keyboard
Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade[56] and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. HP Mini 210-2040br laptop keyboard
By moving the centre of power to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.[57] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, SONY VAIO VGN-AW35GJ laptop keyboard
admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship,[58] and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy.[59] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible,[60] SONY VGN-FE21H laptop keyboard
renewing old ones and instituted new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/B laptop keyboard
Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85 however forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65,[61] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.[61] HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.[61]
Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
of which over one third would presumably have been spent at maintaining the Roman army.[62] The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period, was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judeae following the Jewish uprising of 66. HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory.[63] Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.[64SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
] 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala.[64] Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God".[65] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
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Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph.[66] Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war.Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah.[67] Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum, HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.[68] The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland, between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.[69] He fortified the coast facing Ireland, HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard
and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries.[70] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.[71] TOSHIBA Satellite A200-1BW Laptop Keyboard
The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil.[70] In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard
led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.[69] Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Calidonians, two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.[70] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.[72] His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard
which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.[73]Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against theSuebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. Led by King Decebalus, DELL Inspiron 1564 Laptop Keyboard
the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus.[74] Domitian immediately launched acounteroffensive, HP Envy 15-1015tx Laptop Keyboard
which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commanderCornelius Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost.[75] In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, HP 640892-001 Laptop Keyboard
this time under command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed.[76] An attack on Dacia's capital canceled however when a crisis arose on the German frontier, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors.[77]For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia.[78] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted,[79] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7222 laptop keyboard
resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava,[80] killing thousands of citizens.[81] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
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Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.[82] Additionally, HP G62-120SL laptop keyboard
he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[83] The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
frozen at the moment it was buried on August 24, 79. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On-going excavations reveal new insights into the Roman history and culture. HP Pavilion dv3-2015tx laptop keyboard
During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days.[82][83] Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64, crucially sparing the many districts of insulae, HP pavilion DV7-1020ea laptop keyboard
The Colosseum or Coliseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian:Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo) is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of concreteand stone,[1] SONY VAIO VGN-CS215J/W laptop keyboard
it was the largest amphitheatre of the Roman Empire, and is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and engineering. It is the largest amphitheatre in the world.[2]
The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in 70 AD,[3] and was completed in 80 AD under his successor and heir Titus.[4] HP Pavilion dv6-2110ei laptop keyboard
Further modifications were made during the reign ofDomitian (81–96).[5] These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association with their family name (Flavius). HP Mini 1140NR laptop keyboard
The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators,[6][7] and was used for gladiatorialcontests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, r SONY VAIO VGN-N27GH/B laptop keyboard
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e-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-209TU laptop keyboard
a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, TOSHIBA Satellite a10-501 laptop keyboard
as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[8]
The Colosseum, like all the Historic Centre of Rome, Properties of the Holy See in Italy and the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, HP 576835-001 laptop keyboard
was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1980. In 2007 the complex was also included among the New7Wonders of the World, following a competition organized by New Open World Corporation (NOWC). ASUS F81 laptop keyboard
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, following the reign of Nero.[9] This name is still used in modern English, HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic[10][11] as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[12]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby[5] TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
(the statue of Nero was named after the Colossus of Rhodes).[citation needed] This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-205EF laptop keyboard
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted:Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[13] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[14] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese). ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[5] in around 70–72 AD, funded by the spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem.[15] The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[14] HP 636376-001 laptop keyboard
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories,[14] placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. HP Pavilion dv6-2019er laptop keyboard
Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca laptop keyboard
which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5245 laptop keyboard
The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[5] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity. HP G42-368TX laptop keyboard
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[16]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[17] and 508. FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 laptop keyboard
The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.[14] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. FUJITSU CP307045-01 laptop keyboard
The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[14] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[18] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, DELL Latitude D820 Laptop Keyboard
Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-15V Laptop Keyboard
and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.[14] HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). SONY VAIO VGN NR310E/T Laptop Keyboard
In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[19] HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, HP HDX18-1080EG Laptop Keyboard
using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[21] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[22] Elton John (September 2005),[23] and Billy Joel (July 2006). Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. HP 537753-001 Laptop Keyboard
It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard
The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[14] However, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca Laptop Keyboard
having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall. TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-S5151 Laptop Keyboard
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by apodium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthianpilasters.[24] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractableawning, DELL Inspiron 1520 Laptop Keyboard
known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[5] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters atMisenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[25]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[5] HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[14] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit. SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorialclass, ASUS X53 Laptop Keyboard
who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). HP 540 Laptop Keyboard
The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (thesummum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.[14]
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.[26]
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
[14] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum(literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, ACER Aspire 5720 Laptop Keyboard
but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[14] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard
Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[14]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. SAMSUNG BA59-02709A Laptop Keyboard
Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulicmechanisms[14] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnushad its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
HP Pavilion dv4-1242tx Laptop Keyboard
Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools. ASUS F80C Laptop Keyboard
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; theSanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.[14] ASUS V020662BS1 laptop keyboard
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard
and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, orvenatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, HP Mini 110-3000 CTO laptop keyboard
panthers, leopards,bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. HP Mini 110-3103sl laptop keyboard
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. ASUS V020662BS1 laptop keyboard
There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[14] HP Mini 210-1050EI laptop keyboard
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, HP Pavilion dv6-2192el laptop keyboard
and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard
They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death. COMPAQ Presario CQ40 laptop keyboard
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for citizens of the European Union (EU) is partially subsidised, HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
and entrance is free for EU citizens under eighteen or over sixty-five years of age.[27] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. HP Pavilion dv6-3103er laptop keyboard
Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[28] SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVIled the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[29][30] on Good Fridays.[8] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
In 2011 Diego Della Valle, head of the shoe firm Tod's, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a €25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years.[31][needs update] HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
There are no historical records or physical evidence as to the use of the Colosseum, or any other amphitheatre, as a place of execution for Christians.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th centuryMirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
which claims the Circus Flaminius – but not the Colosseum – as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, SONY VAIO VGN-FW190NDH Laptop Keyboard
on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 bookRoma ex ethnica sacra. HP Pavilion DV7-2122tx Laptop Keyboard
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. ACER Aspire 4920 Laptop Keyboard
The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, ASUS U3S Laptop Keyboard
living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard
The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). GATEWAY V030946FS1 US laptop keyboard
Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned.[14] 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
One other romantic reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported on the animals brought there from all corners of the empire.
The Flavian dynasty was a Roman Imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between AD 69 and AD 96, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69–79), DELL NSK-DE101 laptop keyboard
and his two sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho died in quick succession,Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH laptop keyboard
His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the Eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian Emperor in his place. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favour of the Flavian forces, ACER Aspire 9120 laptop keyboard
who entered Rome on December 20. The following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign. Compaq Presario CQ62-a50SH laptop keyboard
The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash and lava. SONY VAIO VGN-FS395VP laptop keyboard
One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70, following the failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between 77 and 83, Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus. HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
The Flavians initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. GATEWAY M-6813M Laptop Keyboard
A massive building programme was enacted to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.
SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nervan-Antonian dynasty.
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD.[1] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
One such family were the Flavians, orgens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian's grandfather, Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 Laptop Keyboard
Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.[2] Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's sonTitus Flavius Sabinus I.[3] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collectorin Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland)). HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patriciangens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.[3]
Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had two sons, DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45).[4] Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74.[5] The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
aedile andpraetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.[6] Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,[7] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68).[8] Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
and maximize achievements under EmperorClaudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus.[9] By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66.[10] HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
From c. 57 to 59, Titus was a military tribune in Germania, and later served in Britannia. His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65.[11] Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. IBM ThinkPad T40p 2668 Laptop Keyboard
However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65.[12] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.[13][14] He never re-married. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[15] FUJITSU Lifebook E8310 Laptop Keyboard
The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.[15] During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.[16] SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon.[17] The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to the Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions.[18][19] He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion.[20] HP Pavilion dv6-2131el laptop keyboard
With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across the Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem.[20]
On 9 June 68, Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
amidst growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him theJulio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, HP Mini 210-2103tu laptop keyboard
during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitelliusand Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, HP 640208-001 Laptop Keyboard
then governor ofHispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.[21] Before reaching Italy however, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[22]
Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome.[14] SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.[23]When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.[24] Lenovo 45N2036 Laptop Keyboard
Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.[24] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.[25] HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
In Rome meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression.[26]Support for the old emperor was waning however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.[27] In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II,[28] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.[29] On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill.[30] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters.[30] SONY VAIO PCG-FR495EP laptop keyboard
By the afternoon of 20 December Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; HP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.[30]The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.[31] SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate.[30] HP Compaq G50-124NR laptop keyboard
Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. In early 70, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Vespasian was still in Egypt however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.[32] By the end 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. DELL NSK-DG101 laptop keyboard
Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus, aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians.[33] HP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, such as the institution of the tax on urinals, Compaq Presario CQ56-103EG laptop keyboard
and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him.[34] Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.[35] TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
Vespasian died of natural causes on June 23, 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus.[36] The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.[37] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79 and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians.[38] TOSHIBA Satellite A300-1BZ laptop keyboard
In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80,[39] but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79, and the fire of Rome of 80.[40] Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult, TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6829 laptop keyboard
deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian.[41][42] After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on September 13, 81, SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
and was deified by the Roman Senate.[43]
Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius. SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage,[44]expanded the border defenses of the Empire,[45] and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome.[46] In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland,[47] but in Dacia, ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi laptop keyboard
Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians.[48] On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. ACER 90.4C507.01D Laptop Keyboard
The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, ACER KB.INT00.058 Laptop Keyboard
Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's.[49] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/W Laptop Keyboard
while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.[50]Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch.[51] TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard
The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius.[52] ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi Laptop Keyboard
He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.[53] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
the censorship, and perhaps most remarkably, was given command of the Praetorian Guard.[54] Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.[55] HP COMPAQ NC6320 Laptop Keyboard
Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade[56] and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. HP Mini 210-2040br laptop keyboard
By moving the centre of power to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.[57] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, SONY VAIO VGN-AW35GJ laptop keyboard
admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship,[58] and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy.[59] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible,[60] SONY VGN-FE21H laptop keyboard
renewing old ones and instituted new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/B laptop keyboard
Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85 however forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65,[61] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.[61] HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.[61]
Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
of which over one third would presumably have been spent at maintaining the Roman army.[62] The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period, was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judeae following the Jewish uprising of 66. HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory.[63] Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.[64SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
] 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala.[64] Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God".[65] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph.[66] Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war.Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah.[67] Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum, HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.[68] The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland, between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.[69] He fortified the coast facing Ireland, HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard
and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries.[70] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.[71] TOSHIBA Satellite A200-1BW Laptop Keyboard
The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil.[70] In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard
led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.[69] Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Calidonians, two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.[70] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.[72] His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard
which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.[73]Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against theSuebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. Led by King Decebalus, DELL Inspiron 1564 Laptop Keyboard
the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus.[74] Domitian immediately launched acounteroffensive, HP Envy 15-1015tx Laptop Keyboard
which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commanderCornelius Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost.[75] In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, HP 640892-001 Laptop Keyboard
this time under command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed.[76] An attack on Dacia's capital canceled however when a crisis arose on the German frontier, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors.[77]For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia.[78] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted,[79] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7222 laptop keyboard
resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava,[80] killing thousands of citizens.[81] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
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Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.[82] Additionally, HP G62-120SL laptop keyboard
he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[83] The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
frozen at the moment it was buried on August 24, 79. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On-going excavations reveal new insights into the Roman history and culture. HP Pavilion dv3-2015tx laptop keyboard
During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days.[82][83] Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64, crucially sparing the many districts of insulae, HP pavilion DV7-1020ea laptop keyboard