Eiffel Tower
The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl]) is an iron lattice tower located on the Champ de Marsin Paris. It was named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Erected in 1889 as the entrance arch to the 1889 World's Fair, it has become both a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognizable structures in the world. The tower is the tallest structure in Paris[10] SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
and the most-visited paid monument in the world; 7.1 million people ascended it in 2011. The tower received its 250 millionth visitor in 2010.
The tower stands 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
about the same height as an 81-storey building. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to assume the title of the tallest man-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years, SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
until the Chrysler Building in New York City was built in 1930. Because of the addition of the antenna atop the Eiffel Tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 17 feet (5.2 m). Not including broadcast antennas, it is the second-tallest structure in France, after the Millau Viaduct. Lenovo 45N2036 Laptop Keyboard
The tower has three levels for visitors. The third level observatory's upper platform is at 279.11 m (915.7 ft) the highest accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend, bystairs or lift (elevator), HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
to the first and second levels. The walk from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the walk from the first to the second level. Although there are stairs to the third and highest level, these are usually closed to the public and it is usually accessible only by lift. The first and second levels have restaurants. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
The tower has become the most prominent symbol of both Paris and France, often in the establishing shot offilms set in the city.
The design of the Eiffel Tower was originated by Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers who worked for the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a World's Fair which would celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. In May 1884, Koechlin, working at home, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
made an outline drawing of their scheme, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals".[11] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
Initially Eiffel himself showed little enthusiasm, but he did sanction further study of the project, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company's architectural department, to contribute to the design. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base, a glass pavilion to the first level and other embellishments. This enhanced version gained Eiffel's support, and he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, GATEWAY M-6813M Laptop Keyboard
and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885 Eiffel presented a paper on the project to the Société des Ingiénieurs Civils; SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying that the tower would symbolise[12] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
"not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's gratitude." Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 Laptop Keyboard
Little happened until the beginning of 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as President and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as Minister for Trade. A budget for the Exposition was passed and on 1 May Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition which was being held for a centerpiece for the exposition, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
which effectively made the choice of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion: all entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars.[13] On 12 May a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
scheme and its rivals and on 12 June it presented its decision, which was that all the proposals except Eiffel's were either impractical or insufficiently worked out. After some debate about the exact site for the tower, a contract was finally signed on 8 January 1887. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. HP Compaq G50-124NR laptop keyboard
Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the following twenty years. Eiffel later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.[14] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
The projected tower had been a subject of some controversy, attracting criticism both from those who did not believe that it was feasible and also from those who objected on artistic grounds. Their objections were an expression of a longstanding debate about the relationship between architecture and engineering. DELL NSK-DG101 laptop keyboard
This came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: A "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architectCharles Garnier and including some of the most important figures ofHP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
the French arts establishment, including Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet: a petition was sent to Charles Alphand, the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, and was published by Le Temps.[15] Compaq Presario CQ56-103EG laptop keyboard
"We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection…of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower … SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint-Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years…we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal" Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian Pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way ? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris ?" TOSHIBA Satellite A300-1BZ laptop keyboard
[16] These criticisms were also masterfully dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, ironically[17] saying "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
one can tell that…this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time", and going on to point out that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before and was already under construction. SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
Indeed, Garnier had been a member of the Tower Commission that had assessed the various proposals, and had raised no objection. TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6829 laptop keyboard
Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, HP Pavilion dv6-2131el laptop keyboard
and putting the aesthetic argument for the Tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony?"[18]
Some of the protestors were to change their minds when the tower was built: others remained unconvinced. Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.[19] Today, the Tower is widely considered to be a striking piece ofstructural art. HP Mini 210-2103tu laptop keyboard
Work on the foundations started in January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg but the other two, HP 640208-001 Laptop Keyboard
being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft)[20] ACER 90.4C507.01D Laptop Keyboard
to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block built of limestone each with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork. Each shoe was anchored into the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. ACER KB.INT00.058 Laptop Keyboard
The foundations were complete by 30 June and the erection of the ironwork began. The very visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that was entailed: Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed.[21] The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.04 in) HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from the factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/W Laptop Keyboard
the bolts being replaced by rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all there were 18,038 pieces joined by two and a half million rivets.[22] TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard
At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers but about halfway to the first level construction was paused in order to construct a substantial timber scaffold. This caused a renewal of the concerns about the structural soundness of the project, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide!" and "Gustave Eiffel has gone mad: he has been confined in an Asylum" appeared in the popular press.[23] At this stage a small "creeper" crane was installed in each leg, designed to move up the tower as construction progressed and making use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in each leg. ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi Laptop Keyboard
The critical stage of joining the four legs at the first level was complete by March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost precision, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs: hydraulicjacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
each capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and in addition the legs had been intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Although construction involved 300 on-site employees, only one person died thanks to Eiffel's stringent safety precautions and use of movable stagings, guard-rails, and screens.
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and on the 31st Eiffel celebrated this by leading a group of government officials, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Since the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, Eiffel frequently stopping to make explanations of various features. HP COMPAQ NC6320 Laptop Keyboard
Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including Nouguier, Compagnon, the President of the City Council and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré completed the climb. HP Mini 210-2040br laptop keyboard
At 2.35 Eiffel hoisted a largetricolore, to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired from the lower level.[24] There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and the fitting out of the facilities for visitors, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the Exposition on 6 May, and even then the lifts had not been completed. SONY VAIO PCG-FR495EP laptop keyboard
The tower was an immediate success with the public, and lengthy queues formed to make the ascent. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been nearly two million visitors.[25] HP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years; it was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it could be easily demolished) but as the tower proved valuable for communication purposes, SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
it was allowed to remain after the expiration of the permit. In the opening weeks of World War I, powerful radio transmitters were fitted to the tower in order to jam German communications. This seriously hindered their advance on Paris, and contributed to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne.[26] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French so that Adolf Hitler would have to climb the steps to the summit. The parts to repair them were allegedly impossible to obtain because of the war. HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
In 1940 German soldiers had to climb to the top to hoist the swastika,[31] but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
It was said that Hitler conquered France, but did not conquer the Eiffel Tower. A Frenchman scaled the tower during the German occupation to hang the French flag. In August 1944, when the Allies were nearing Paris, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. Some say Hitler was later persuaded to keep the tower intact so it could later be used for communications. The lifts of the Tower were working normally within hours of the Liberation of Paris.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
t the time the tower was built many people were shocked by its daring shape. Eiffel was criticised for the design and accused of trying to create something artistic, or inartistic according to the viewer, without regard to engineering. Eiffel and his engineers, however, as experienced bridge builders, SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
understood the importance of wind forces and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world they had to be certain it would withstand the wind. In an interview reported in the newspaper Le Temps, Eiffel said: ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Now to what phenomenon did I give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be […] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.[40]
Researchers have found that Eiffel used empirical and graphical methods accounting for the effects of wind rather than a specific mathematical formula. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
Careful examination of the tower shows a basically exponential shape; actually two different exponentials, the lower section overdesigned to ensure resistance to wind forces. Several mathematical explanations have been proposed over the years for the success of the design; HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard
the most recent is described as a nonlinear integral equation based on counterbalancing the wind pressure on any point on the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.[41][42] As a demonstration of the tower's effectiveness in wind resistance, it sways only 6–7 cm (2–3 in) in the wind.[5][41][42] SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
top.[43] On occasion the color of the paint is changed; the tower is currently painted a shade of bronze.[44] On the first floor there are interactive consoles hosting a poll for the color to use for a future session of painting. ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi laptop keyboard
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grillwork arches, added in Stephen Sauvestre's sketches, which served to reassure visitors that the structure was safe, and to frame views of other nearby architecture.[45][46][47] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
One of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven stories high, only a small number of taller buildings have a clear view of the tower. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7222 laptop keyboard
The original lifts (elevators) to the first and second floors were provided by two companies. Both companies had to overcome many technical obstacles as neither company (or indeed any company) had experience with installing lifts climbing to such heights with large loads. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The slanting tracks with changing angles further complicated the problems. The East and West lifts were supplied by the French company Roux Combaluzier Lepape, using hydraulically powered chains and rollers. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard
The North and South lifts were provided by the American company Otis using car designs similar to the original installation but using an improved hydraulic and cable scheme. The French lifts had a very poor performance and were replaced with the current installations in 1897 (West HP G62-120SL laptop keyboard
Pillar) and 1899 (East Pillar) by Fives-Lille using an improved hydraulic and rope scheme. Both of the original installations operated broadly on the principle of the Fives-Lille lifts.[50][51]
The Fives-Lille lifts from ground level to the first and second levels are operated by cables and pulleys driven by massive water-powered pistons. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
The hydraulic scheme was somewhat unusual for the time in that it included three large counterweights of 200 tonnes each sitting on top of hydraulic rams which doubled up as accumulators for the water. HP Pavilion dv3-2015tx laptop keyboard
As the lifts ascend the inclined arc of the pillars, the angle of ascent changes. The two lift cabs are kept more or less level and indeed are level at the landings. The cab floors do take on a slight angle at times between landings. HP pavilion DV7-1020ea laptop keyboard
The principle behind the lifts is similar to the operation of a block and tackle but in reverse. Two large hydraulic rams (over 1 metre diameter) with a 16 metre travel are mounted horizontally in the base of the pillar which pushes a carriage ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
(the French word for it translates as chariot and this term will be used henceforth to distinguish it from the lift carriage) with 16 large triple sheaves mounted on it. There are 14 similar sheaves mounted statically. SONY VAIO VGN-AW35GJ laptop keyboard
Six wire ropes are rove back and forth between the sheaves such that each rope passes between the two sets of sheaves seven times. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The ropes then leave the final sheaves on the chariot and pass up through a series of guiding sheaves to above the second floor and then through a pair of triple sheaves back down to the lift carriage again passing guiding sheaves. SONY VGN-FE21H laptop keyboard
This arrangement means that the lift carriage, complete with its cars and passengers, travels 8 times the distance that the rams move the chariot, the 128 metres from the ground to the second floor. SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/B laptop keyboard
The force exerted by the rams also has to be 8 times the total weight of the lift carriage, cars, and passengers, plus extra to account for various losses such as friction. The hydraulic fluid was water, normally stored in three accumulators, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
complete with counterbalance weights. To make the lift ascend, water was pumped using an electrically driven pump from the accumulators to the two rams. Since the counterbalance weights provided much of the pressure required, HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
the pump only had to provide the extra effort. For the descent, it was only necessary to allow the water to flow back to the accumulators using a control valve. The lifts were operated by an operator perched precariously underneath the lift cars. His position (with a dummy operator) can still be seen on the lifts today. SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
The Fives-Lille lifts were completely upgraded in 1986 to meet modern safety requirements and to make the lifts easier to operate. A new computer-controlled system was installed which completely automated the operation. SONY Vaio VGN-AW Laptop Keyboard
One of the three counterbalances was taken out of use, and the cars were replaced with a more modern and lighter structure. Most importantly, the main driving force was removed from the original water pump such that the water hydraulic system provided only a counterbalancing function. HP Pavilion dv6-3111sl Laptop Keyboard
The main driving force was transferred to a 320 kW electrically driven oil hydraulic pump which drives a pair of hydraulic motors on the chariot itself, thus providing the motive power. The new lift cars complete with their carriage and a full 92 passenger load weigh 22 tonnes. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
Owing to elasticity in the ropes and the time taken to get the cars level with the landings, each lift in normal service takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each floor. The average journey time between floors is just 1 minute. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
The original Otis lifts in the North and South pillars in their turn proved to be inferior to the new (in 1899) French lifts and were scrapped from the South pillar in 1900 and from the North pillar in 1913 after failed attempts to repower them with an electric motor. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard
The North and South pillars were to remain without lifts until 1965 when increasing visitor numbers persuaded the operators to install a relatively standard and modern cable hoisted system in the north pillar using a cable-hauled counterbalance weight, but hoisted by a block and tackle system to reduce its travel to one third of the lift travel. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The counterbalance is clearly visible within the structure of the North pillar. This latter lift was upgraded in 1995 with new cars and computer controls.
The South pillar acquired a completely new fairly standard electrically driven lift in 1983 to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. This was also supplied by Otis. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
A further four-ton service lift was added to the South pillar in 1989 by Otis to relieve the main lifts when moving relatively small loads or even just maintenance personnel.
The East and West hydraulic (water) lift works are on display and, at least in theory, are open to the public in a small museum located in base of the East and West tower, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
which is somewhat hidden from public view. Because the massive mechanism requires frequent lubrication and attention, public access is often restricted. However, when open, the wait times are much less than the other, more popular, attractions. The rope mechanism of the North tower is visible to visitors as they exit from the lift. TOSHIBA Satellite A200-1BW Laptop Keyboard
The original lifts from the second to the third floor were also of a water-powered hydraulic design supplied by Léon Edoux. Instead of using a separate counterbalance, the two lift cars counterbalanced each other. HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard
A pair of 81-metre-long hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. A lift car was mounted on top of the rams. Ropes ran from the top of this car up to a sheave on the third level and back down to a second car. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
The result of this arrangement was that each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway, walking between the cars along a narrow gangway with a very impressive and relatively unobstructed downward view. The ten-ton cars held 65 passengers each or up to four tons. SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard
One interesting feature of the original installation was that the hoisting rope ran through guides to retain it on windy days to prevent it flapping and becoming damaged. The guides were mechanically moved out of the way of the ascending car by the movement of the car itself. HP Envy 15-1015tx Laptop Keyboard
In spite of some antifreeze being added to the water that operated this system, it nevertheless had to close to the public from November to March each year. DELL Inspiron 1564 Laptop Keyboard
The original lifts complete with their hydraulic mechanism were completely scrapped in 1982 after 97 years of service. They were replaced with two pairs of relatively standard rope-hoisted cars which were able to operate all the year round. HP 640892-001 Laptop Keyboard
The cars operate in pairs with one providing the counterbalance for the other. Neither car can move unless both sets of doors are closed and both operators have given a start command. The commands from the cars to the hoisting mechanism are by radio, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
obviating the necessity of a control cable. The replacement installation also has the advantage that the ascent can be made without changing cars and has reduced the ascent time from 8 minutes (including change) to 1 minute and 40 seconds. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
This installation also has guides for the hoisting ropes, but they are electrically operated. Once the guide has moved out of the way as the car ascends, it automatically reverses when the car has passed to prevent the mechanism becoming snagged on the car on the downward journey in the event it has failed to completely clear the car. Acer eMachines G730ZG laptop keyboard
Unfortunately these lifts do not have the capacity to move as many people as the three public lower lifts, and long queues to ascend to the third level are common. Most of the intermediate level structure present on the tower today was installed when the lifts were replaced and allows maintenance workers to take the lift halfway. HP Mini 110-3102sl laptop keyboard
The replacement of these lifts allowed the restructuring of the criss-cross beams in upper part of the tower and further allowed the installation of two emergency staircases. These replaced the dangerous winding stairs that were installed when the tower was constructed. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215S laptop keyboard
The tower and its representations have long been in the public domain. However, a French court ruled, in June 1990, that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989, for the tower's 100th anniversary, was an "HP V107046AS1 laptop keyboard
original visual creation" protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992.[56][dead link]The Société d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel (SETE) SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
now considers any illumination of the tower to be under copyright.[57] As a result, it is no longer legal to publish contemporary photographs of the tower at night without permission in France and some other countries. SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then the Société nouvelle d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in January 2005, HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard
"It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways we don't approve." However, it also potentially has the effect of prohibiting tourist photographs of the tower at night from being published,[58] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the tower. Besides, French doctrine and jurisprudence traditionally allow pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the main represented subject,[59] HP Pavilion dm1-1010et laptop keyboard
a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Thus, SETE could not claim copyright on photographs or panoramas of Paris incorporating the lit tower.
The Washington Monument is an obelisk on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and the first American president. HP Pavilion DV6-1160ev laptop keyboard
The monument, made of marble, granite, and bluestone gneiss,[1] is both the world's tallest stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk, standing 555 feet 5 1⁄8 inches (169.294 m) tall.[n 1] Taller monumental columns exist, but they are neither all stone nor true obelisks.[n 2] HP HDX18-1299EB laptop keyboard
Construction of the monument began in 1848, was halted from 1854 to 1877, and finally completed in 1884. The hiatus in construction happened because of co-option by the Know Nothing party, a lack of funds, and the intervention of theAmerican Civil War. A difference in shading of the marble, ACER Aspire 5625G laptop keyboard
visible approximately 150 feet (46 m) or 27% up, shows where construction was halted. Its original design was by Robert Mills, an architect of the 1840s, but his design was modified significantly when construction resumed. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the capstone was set on December 6, 1884, and the completed monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885.[7] It officially opened October 9, 1888. Upon completion, SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
it became the world's tallest structure, a title previously held by the Cologne Cathedral. The monument held this designation until 1889, when the Eiffel Tower was completed in Paris, France. FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
The monument stands due east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial. The monument was damaged during theVirginia earthquake of August 23, 2011 and Hurricane Irene in the same year; as of 2013 it remains closed to the public while the structure is assessed and repaired.[8] COMPAQ Presario V6307TU Laptop Keyboard
The National Park Service estimates the monument will be closed until 2014. Difficulties in repair include complexities such as the time needed to erect scaffolding.[9]
Hailed as the father of his country, and the leader who was "first in war, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen", George Washington (1732–1799) was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1798. Even his erstwhile enemy King George III called him "the greatest character of the age".[10] HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
At his death in 1799 he left a critical legacy: he exemplified the core ideals of the American Revolution and the new nation: republican virtue and devotion to civic duty. Washington was the unchallenged public icon of American military and civic patriotism. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
He was also identified with the Federalist Party that lost control of the national government in 1800 to the Jeffersonian Republicans, who were reluctant to celebrate the hero of the opposition party.[11] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
Progress towards a memorial finally began in 1832. That year, which marked the 100th anniversary of Washington's birth, a large group of concerned citizens formed the Washington National Monument Society. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
In 1836, after they had raised $28,000 in donations ($15,200,000 in 2011[16]), they announced a competition for the design of the memorial.[17]
On September 23, 1835, the board of managers of the society described their expectations:[18] FUJITSU Lifebook E8110 Laptop Keyboard
It is proposed that the contemplated monument shall be like him in whose honor it is to be constructed, unparalleled in the world, and commensurate with the gratitude, liberality, and patriotism of the people by whom it is to be erected ... [It] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
should blend stupendousness with elegance, and be of such magnitude and beauty as to be an object of pride to the American people, HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
and of admiration to all who see it. Its material is intended to be wholly American, and to be of marble and granite brought from each state, that each state may participate in the glory of contributing material as well as in funds to its construction. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
The society held a competition for designs in 1836. The winner, architect Robert Mills, was well qualified for the commission. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
The citizens of Baltimore had chosen him to build a monument to Washington, and he had designed a tall Greek column surmounted by a statue of the President. Mills also knew the capital well, having just been chosen Architect of Public Buildings for Washington. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
His design called for a tall obelisk—an upright, four-sided pillar that tapers as it rises—with a nearly flat top. He surrounded the obelisk with a circular colonnade, the top of which would feature Washington standing in a chariot. Inside the colonnade would be statues of 30 prominent Revolutionary War heroes. ACER Aspire 8935 Laptop Keyboard
One part of Mills' elaborate design that was built was the doorway surmounted by an Egyptian-style Winged sun. It was removed when construction resumed after 1884. A photo can be seen in The Egyptian Revival by Richard G. Carrot.[19] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard
Criticism of Mills' design and its estimated price tag of more than $1 million ($543,000,000 in 2011[16])[20] caused the society to hesitate. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Its members decided to start building the obelisk, and to leave the question of the colonnade for later. They believed that if they used the $87,000 they had already collected to start work, the appearance of the monument would spur further donations that would allow them to complete the project. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Starting with victory in the Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Democratic-Republican Party (Jeffersonian Republicans) took control of Congress in 1801.[12] ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men. They also blocked his image on coins or the celebration of his birthday. Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial.[13] SONY VGN-FE Series laptop keyboard
As early as 1783, the Continental Congress had resolved "That an equestrian statue of George Washington be erected at the place where the residence of Congress shall be established." The proposal called for engraving on the statue which explained it had been erected "in honor of George Washington, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5306 laptop keyboard
the illustriousCommander-in-Chief of the Armies of the United States of America during the war which vindicated and secured their liberty, sovereignty, and independence."[14]Currently, there are two equestrian statues of President Washington in Washington, ACER TravelMate 6292 laptop keyboard
DC. One is located in Washington Circle at the intersection of the Foggy Bottom and West End neighborhoods at the north end of the George Washington University, and the other is in the gardens of the National Cathedral. HP G61-420SL laptop keyboard
Ten days after Washington's death, a Congressional committee recommended a different type of monument. John Marshall, a Representative from Virginia (who later became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court) proposed that a tomb be erected within the Capitol. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
But a lack of funds, disagreement over what type of memorial would best honor the country's first president, and the Washington family's reluctance to move his body prevented progress on any project.[15] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard
The Washington Monument was originally intended to be located at the point at which a line running directly south from the center of the White House crossed a line running directly west from the center of the Capitol. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant's 1791 "Plan of the city intended for the permanent seat of t(he) government of the United States ..." designated this point as the location of the equestrian statue of George Washington that the Continental Congress had voted for in 1783.[21][n ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
3] The ground at the intended location proved to be too unstable to support a structure as heavy as the planned obelisk; at that site, 390 feet (119 m) WNW from the Monument, there now stands a small monolith called the Jefferson Pier. HP G72-b50US Laptop Keyboard
Excavation for the foundation of the Monument began in early 1848.[25] The cornerstone was laid as part of an elaborate Fourth of July ceremony hosted by the Freemasons, an organization to which Washington belonged. ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard
Speeches that day showed the country continued to revere Washington. One celebrant noted, "No more Washingtons shall come in our time ... But his virtues are stamped on the heart of mankind. He who is great in the battlefield looks upward to the generalship of Washington. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
He who grows wise in counsel feels that he is imitating Washington. He who can resign power against the wishes of a people, has in his eye the bright example of Washington."
Construction continued until 1854, when donations ran out.[26] The next year, Congress voted to appropriate $200,000 ($68.1 million in 2011[16] HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
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) to continue the work, but rescinded before the money could be spent. This reversal came because of a new policy the society had adopted in 1849. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Members of the society believed this practice would make citizens feel they had a part in building the monument, and it would cut costs by limiting the amount of stone that had to be bought. Blocks of Maryland marble, FUJITSU Lifebook E8110 Laptop Keyboard
graniteand sandstone steadily appeared at the site. American Indian tribes, professional organizations, societies, businesses and foreign nations donated stones that were 4 feet by 2 feet by 12–18 inches (1.2 m by 0.6 m by 0.3 – 0.5 m). Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
One stone was donated by the Ryukyu Kingdom and brought back by Commodore Matthew C. Perry,[27] but never arrived in Washington (it was replaced in 1989).[28] Many of the stones donated for the monument carried inscriptions which did not commemorate George Washington. COMPAQ Presario CQ41-219AX laptop keyboard
For example, one from the Templars of Honor and Temperance stated "We will not buy, sell, or use as a beverage, any spiritous or malt liquors, Wine, Cider, or any other Alcoholic Liquor." It was just one commemorative stone that started the events that stopped the Congressional appropriation and ultimately construction altogether. In the early 1850s, TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 laptop keyboard
Pope Pius IX contributed a block of marble. In March 1854, members of the anti-Catholic, nativist American Party — better known as the "Know-Nothings"—stole the Pope's stone as a protest and supposedly threw it into the Potomac (it was replaced in 1982).[29] Congress immediately rescinded its $200,000 contribution. SONY VAIO VGN-NW28E/N laptop keyboard
The Know-Nothings retained control of the society until 1858, adding 13 courses of masonry to the monument, all of which were of such poor quality that they were later removed. Unable to collect enough money to finish work, they increasingly lost public support. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
The Know-Nothings eventually gave up and returned all records to the original society, but the stoppage in construction continued into, then after, the Civil War.[29]
Interest in the monument grew after the Civil War. Engineers studied the foundation several times to determine if it was strong enough. SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
In 1876, the Centennial of the Declaration of Independence, Congress agreed to appropriate another $200,000 to resume construction.[25] The monument, which had stood for nearly 20 years at less than one-third of its proposed height, now seemed ready for completion. HP G61-415SA laptop keyboard
Before work could begin again, arguments about the most appropriate design resumed. Many people thought a simple obelisk, one without the colonnade, would be too bare. Architect Mills was reputed to have said omitting the colonnade would make the monument look like "a stalk of asparagus"; another critic said it offered "little ... to be proud of."[15] HP Pavilion G60-213EM laptop keyboard
This attitude led people to submit alternative designs. Both the Washington National Monument Society and Congress held discussions about how the monument should be finished. The society considered five new designs, concluding that the one by William Wetmore Story seemed "vastly superior in artistic taste and beauty." HP Pavilion G60-120EM laptop keyboard
Congress deliberated over those five as well as Mills' original. While it was deciding, it ordered work on the obelisk to continue. Finally, the members of the society agreed to abandon the colonnade and alter the obelisk so it conformed to classical Egyptian proportions.[18] SONY VAIO VGN-NW51FB laptop keyboard
Construction resumed in 1879 under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Lincoln Casey of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Casey redesigned the foundation, strengthening it so it could support a structure that ultimately weighed more than 40,000 tons. HP G72-b50US laptop keyboard
He then followed the society's orders and figured out what to do with the commemorative stones that had accumulated. Though many people ridiculed them, Casey managed to install most of the stones in the interior walls — one stone was found at the bottom of the elevator shaft in 1951.[28] SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/W laptop keyboard
One difficulty that is visible to this day is that the builders were unable to find the same quarry stone used in the initial construction, and as a result, the bottom third of the monument is a slightly lighter shade than the rest of the construction. HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 laptop keyboard
The building of the monument proceeded quickly after Congress had provided sufficient funding. In four years, it was completed, with the 100-ounce (2.85 kg) aluminum apex/lightning-rod being put in place on December 6, 1884.[25] HP Pavilion DV6-1170ep laptop keyboard
The apex was the largest single piece of aluminum cast at the time, when aluminum commanded a price comparable to silver.[30] Two years later, the Hall–Héroult process made aluminum easier to produce and the price of aluminum plummeted, DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
making the once-valuable apex nearly worthless, though it still provided a lustrous, non-rusting apex that served as the original lightning rod.[31] The monument opened to the public on October 9, 1888.[32] SONY 147915321 laptop keyboard
At the time of its completion, it was the tallest building in the world, a title it retained until the Eiffel tower was completed in 1889. It remains the tallest stone structure in the world.[n 2] It is the tallest building in Washington, D.C.. The Heights of Buildings Act of 1910 restricts new building heights to no more than 20 feet (6.1 m) HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
greater than the width of the adjacent street. This monument is vastly taller than the obelisks around the capitals of Europe and in Egypt andEthiopia, but ordinary antique obelisks were quarried as a monolithic block of stone, and were therefore seldom taller than approximately 100 feet (30 m).[34] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The Washington Monument attracted enormous crowds before it officially opened. During the six months that followed its dedication, 10,041 people climbed the 897 steps and 50 landings to the top. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
After the elevator that had been used to raise building materials was altered to carry passengers, the number of visitors grew rapidly. As early as 1888, an average of 55,000 people per month went to the top, DELL Latitude D505 Laptop Keyboard
and today the Washington Monument has more than 800,000 visitors each year. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the national memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
The stairs are no longer accessible to the general public due to safety issues and vandalism of the interior commemorative stones.
In the early 1900s unsightly material started oozing out between the outer stones of the first construction period below the 150-foot mark. Tourists referred to this as "geological tuberculosis". HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
This was caused by the weathering of the cement and rubble filler between the outer and inner walls. As the lower section of the monument was exposed to cold and hot and damp and dry weather conditions, the material dissolved and worked its way through the cracks between the stones of the outer wall, solidifying as it dripped down their outer surface.[35] COMPAQ Presario CQ61 Laptop Keyboard
In the early 1930s a steel framework was erected surrounding the entire monument to clean it by sandblasting. A few local residents were allowed to ride a cage elevator to the top of the shaft and climb a caged ladder up the side of the pyramidion to a platform surrounding the apex to touch it.[36] HP G72-b50US Laptop Keyboard
Earlier 1900 plans to build sunken gardens near the monument with trees and other foliage were never implemented.[37]
For ten hours in December 1982, the Washington Monument was "held hostage" by a nuclear arms protester, Norman Mayer, HP G42-245BR Laptop Keyboard
claiming to have explosives in a van he drove to the monument's base. Eight tourists trapped in the monument at the time the standoff began were set free, and the incident ended with U.S. Park Police opening fire on Mayer, killing him. The monument was undamaged in the incident, and it was discovered later that Mayer did not have explosives.[38][39] GATEWAY MT6919 Laptop Keyboard
The monument underwent an extensive restoration project between 1998 and 2001. During this time it was completely covered in scaffolding designed by the American architect Michael Graves (who was also responsible for the interior changes).[40] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
The project included cleaning, repairing and repointing the monument's exterior and interior stonework. The stone in public accessible interior spaces was encased in glass to prevent vandalism, while new windows with narrower frames were installed (to increase the viewing space). COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard
New exhibits celebrating the life of George Washington, and the monument's place in history, were also added.[41] A temporary interactive visitors center, dubbed the "Discovery Channel Center" was also constructed during the project. The center provided a simulated ride to the top of the monument, DELL 08WK6F Laptop Keyboard
and shared information with visitors during phases in which the monument was closed.[42] The majority of the project's phases were completed by summer 2000, allowing the monument to reopen July 31, 2000.[41] Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
The monument temporarily closed again on December 4, 2000 to allow a new elevator cab to be installed, completing the final phase of the restoration project. The new cab included glass windows, Lenovo 45N2036 laptop keyboard
allowing visitors to see some of the 193 commemorative stones embedded in the monument's walls. The installation of the cab took much longer than anticipated, and the monument did not reopen until February 22, 2002. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-152 laptop keyboard
The final cost of the restoration project was $10.5 million.[43]
On September 7, 2004 the monument closed for a $15 million renovation, which included numerous security upgrades and design of the monument grounds by landscape architect, Laurie Olin. SONY VAIO VPCF121FX laptop keyboard
The renovations were due partly to security concerns following the September 11 attacks and the start of the War on Terror. The monument reopened April 1, 2005, while the surrounding grounds remained closed until the landscape was finished later that summer.[44][45] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard
On August 23, 2011, the Washington Monument sustained damage during the 2011 Virginia earthquake.[46] A National Park Service spokesperson reported that inspectors discovered a crack near the top of the structure, and announced that the monument would be closed indefinitely.[47][48] SONY Vaio VGN-FW190 laptop keyboard
A block in the pyramidion also was partially dislodged, and pieces of stone, stone chips, mortar, and paint chips came free of the monument and "littered" the interior stairs and observation deck.[49] TTOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
he Park Service said it was bringing in two structural engineering firms (Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. and Tipping Mar Associates) with extensive experience in historic buildings and earthquake-damaged structures to assess the monument.[50] Packard Bell Easynote LM82 laptop keyboard
Officials said an examination of the monument's exterior revealed a "debris field" of mortar and pieces of stone around the base of the monument, and several "substantial" pieces of stone had fallen inside the memorial.[48] A crack in the central stone of the west face of the pyramidion was 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide and 4 feet (1.2 m) long.[51][52] HP G72-b50US laptop keyboard
Park Service inspectors also discovered that the elevator system had been damaged, and was operating only to the 250-foot (76 m) level, but was soon repaired.[53]
On September 27, 2011, Denali National Park ranger Brandon Latham arrived to assist four climbers belonging to a "difficult access" team from Wiss, Janney, HP G42-245BR laptop keyboard
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Elstner Associates.[48][52] The reason for the inspection was the park agency's suspicion that there were more cracks on the monument's upper section not visible from the inside. The agency said it filled the cracks which occurred on August 23. But after Hurricane Irene hit the D.C. area on August 27, Lenovo IdeaPad Y710 4054 laptop keyboard
water was discovered inside the memorial, leading the Park Service to suspect there was more undiscovered damage.[48] The rappellers used radios to report what they found to engineering experts on the ground.[54] Wiss, Janney, SONY VAIO VGN-N21M/W laptop keyboard
Elstner climber Dave Megerle took three hours to set up the rappelling equipment and set up a barrier around the monument's lightning rod system atop the pyramidion;[51] it was the first time the hatch in the pyramidion had been open since 2000.[51] HP Pavilion DV6-1122us laptop keyboard
The external inspection of the monument was completed October 5, 2011. In addition to the four-foot long west crack, the inspection found several corner cracks and surface spalls (pieces of stone broken loose) at or near the top of the monument, and more loss of joint mortar lower down the monument. SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard
The full report was due November 2011.[55] Bob Vogel, Superintendent of the National Mall and Memorial Parks, emphasized that the monument was not in danger of collapse. "It's structurally sound and not going anywhere", he told the national media at a press conference on September 26, 2011.[52] FUJITSU Siemens M1010 laptop keyboard
More than $200,000 was spent between August 24 and September 26 inspecting the structure.[48] The National Park Service said that it would soon begin sealing the exterior cracks on the monument to protect it from rain and snow.[54][56] Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard
On July 9, 2012, The National Park Service announced that the monument could be closed for repairs until 2014.[57] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
NPS said a portion of the plaza at the base of the monument will be removed and scaffolding constructed around the exterior. In July 2013, lighting was added to the scaffolding.[58] Some stone pieces saved during the 2011 inspection will be refastened to the monument, while "Dutchman patches"[59][60] HP G62-a23EE Laptop Keyboard
will be used in other places. Several of the stone lips which help hold the pyramidion's 2,000-pound (910 kg) exterior slabs in place were also damaged, so engineers will install metal brackets to more securely fasten them to the monument.[61] GATEWAY MX8738 Laptop Keyboard
Construction details
The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco style skyscraper in New York City, located on the east side of Manhattan in theTurtle Bay area at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue. At 1,046 feet (319 m),[1][6][7] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP09 Laptop Keyboard
the structure was the world's tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931.[8] It is still the tallest brick building in the world, albeit with an internal steel skeleton. TOSHIBA Satellite 1805-s254 Laptop Keyboard
After the destruction of theWorld Trade Center, it was again the second-tallest building in New York City until December 2007, when the spire was raised on the 1,200-foot (365.8 m) Bank of America Tower, ACER NSK-AL01D Laptop Keyboard
pushing the Chrysler Building into third position. In addition, The New York Times Building, which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height.[9]Both buildings were then pushed into 4th position, when the under construction One World Trade Center surpassed their height. HP G62-a38SE Laptop Keyboard
The Chrysler Building is a classic example of Art Deco architecture and considered by many contemporary architects to beone of the finest buildings in New York City. In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.[10] HP G62-a30EB Laptop Keyboard
It was the headquarters of the Chrysler Corporation from 1930 until the mid-1950s. Although the building was built and designed specifically for the car manufacturer, the corporation did not pay for the construction of it and never owned it, as Walter P. Chrysler decided to pay for it himself, so that his children could inherit it.[11] Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel-like glass crown. It also featured a base in which the showroom windows were tripled in height and topped by 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners, Compaq Presario CQ35-101TU laptop keyboard
creating an impression that the tower appeared physically and visually light as if floating in mid-air.[11]The height of the skyscraper was also originally designed to be 246 meters (807 ft).[14] However, the design proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds, who disapproved of Van Alen's original plan.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/W laptop keyboard
The design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler, who worked with Van Alen and redesigned the skyscraper for additional stories; it was eventually revised to be 282 m (925 ft) tall.[14] SAMSUNG N128 laptop keyboard
As Walter Chrysler was the chairman of the Chrysler Corporation and intended to make the building into Chrysler's headquarters,[14]various architectural details and especially the building's gargoyles were modeled after Chrysler automobile products like the hood ornaments of the Plymouth; HP Pavilion dv6-3107ax laptop keyboard
they exemplify the machine age in the 1920s (see below).[16][17] Construction commenced on September 19, 1928.[14] In total, almost 400,000 rivets were used[14] and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid, SONY VAIO VGN-CR21/B laptop keyboard
to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper.[18] Contractors, builders and engineers were joined by other building-services experts to coordinate construction.
Prior to its completion, the building stood about even with a rival project at 40 Wall Street, designed by H. Craig Severance. HP Pavilion dv3-2305tx laptop keyboard
Severance increased the height of his project and then publicly claimed the title of the world's tallest building.[19](This distinction excluded structures that were not fully habitable, such as theEiffel Tower.)[20] In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a 38-meter (125 ft) long spire[21] and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building. ACER K052030A1 laptop keyboard
The spire was delivered to the site in four different sections.[22] On October 23, 1929, the bottom section of the spire was hoisted onto the top of the building's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building. The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in sequential order in just 90 minutes.[23]
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It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet (305 m). Van Alen's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.[11] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27, 1930, the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building, but the Chrysler Building is still the world's tallest steel-supported brick building. SONY VAIO VGN-CR25G laptop keyboard
As of November 2, 2011, the building's height was surpassed by the under construction One World Trade Center at the height of 1,106 feet.[24][25]
The east building wall of the base out of which the tower rises runs at a slant to the Manhattan street grid, following a property line that predated the Commissioners' Plan of 1811.[26] T HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa laptop keyboard
he land on which the Chrysler Building stands was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art[27] in 1902. The land was originally leased to William H. Reynolds, but, TOSHIBA Satellite 1805-s254 laptop keyboard
when he was unable to raise money for the project, the building and the development rights to the land were acquired by Walter P. Chrysler in 1928.[27][28] Contrary to popular belief, the Chrysler Corporation was never involved in the construction or ownership of the Chrysler Building, ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard
although it was built and designed for the corporation and served as its headquarters until the mid-1950s. It was a project of Walter P. Chrysler for his children.[11]
The ownership of the building has changed several times. The Chrysler family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf,[29] TOSHIBA Satellite A200-1TJ laptop keyboard
and in 1957 it was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, and owned by Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company. The lobby was refurbished and the facade renovated in 1978–1979.[30] TDELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
he building was owned by Jack Kent Cooke in 1979. The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995. In 1998, Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group bought the Chrysler Building and the adjoining Kent Building in 1997 for about $220 million (equal to $320 million in 2012) HP G62-a30EB laptop keyboard
from a consortium of banks and the estate of Jack Kent Cooke. Tishman Speyer Properties had negotiated a 150-year lease on the land from Cooper Union and the college continues to own both the land under the Chrysler Building and the building itself. Cooper Union's name is on the deed. SONY VAIO VGN-FS980 laptop keyboard
In 2001, a 75% stake in the building management contract was sold, for US$ 300 million (equal to $400 million in 2012), to TMW, the German arm of an Atlanta-based investment fund.[31] On June 11, HP Pavilion dm1-1002tu laptop keyboard
2008 it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, and a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$ 800 million.[32] SONY VAIO PCG-FX203/K Laptop Keyboard
On July 9, 2008 it was announced that the transaction had been completed, and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was now the 90% owner of the building.[33][34]
The Chrysler Building is also renowned and recognized for its terraced crown. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault constructed into seven concentric members with transitioning setbacks, mounted up one behind another.[37] Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
The stainless-steel cladding is ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburstpattern with many triangular vaulted windows, transitioning into smaller segments of the seven narrow setbacks of the facade of the terraced crown. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
The entire crown is clad with silvery "Enduro KA-2" metal, an austenitic stainless steel developed in Germany by Krupp and marketed under the trade name "Nirosta" (a German acronym for nichtrostender Stahl, meaning "non-rusting steel").[11][38] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
Art Deco in France found its American equivalent in the design of the New York skyscrapers of the 1920s. The Chrysler Building ... was one of the most accomplished essays in the style."
"The design, originally drawn up for building contractor William H. HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
Reynolds, was finally sold to Walter P. Chrysler, who wanted a provocative building that would not merely scrape the sky but positively pierce it. Its 77 floors briefly making it the highest building in the world – at least until the Empire State Building was completed – FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
it became the star of the New York skyline, thanks above all to its crowning peak. In a deliberate strategy of myth generation, Van Alen planned a dramatic moment of revelation: the entire seven-storey pinnacle, ACER PK130AE2000 laptop keyboard
complete with special-steel facing, was first assembled inside the building, and then hoisted into position through the roof opening and anchored on top in just one and a half hours. All of a sudden it was there—a sensational fait accompli." HP COMPAQ NX7300 Laptop Keyboard
When the building first opened, it contained a public viewing gallery on the 71st floor, which was closed to the public in 1945. This floor is now the highest occupied floor of the Chrysler Building, it was occupied by an office space management firm in 1986.[39] DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
The private Cloud Club occupied a three-floor high space from the 66th–68th floors, but closed in the late 1970s. Above the 71st floor, the stories of the building are designed mostly for exterior appearance, HP COMPAQ NC6320 Laptop Keyboard
functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire. These top stories are very narrow with low, sloped ceilings, and are useful only for holding radio-broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment.[14] GATEWAY AEMA1TAU119 Laptop Keyboard
Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originally transmitted from the top of the Chrysler in the 1940s and early 1950s, before moving to the Empire State Building.[14] For many years, WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
also used the Chrysler Building as a transmission site, but they also moved to the Empire State Building by the 1970s. There are currently no commercial broadcast stations located at the Chrysler Building.
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DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl]) is an iron lattice tower located on the Champ de Marsin Paris. It was named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Erected in 1889 as the entrance arch to the 1889 World's Fair, it has become both a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognizable structures in the world. The tower is the tallest structure in Paris[10] SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
and the most-visited paid monument in the world; 7.1 million people ascended it in 2011. The tower received its 250 millionth visitor in 2010.
The tower stands 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
about the same height as an 81-storey building. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to assume the title of the tallest man-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years, SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
until the Chrysler Building in New York City was built in 1930. Because of the addition of the antenna atop the Eiffel Tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 17 feet (5.2 m). Not including broadcast antennas, it is the second-tallest structure in France, after the Millau Viaduct. Lenovo 45N2036 Laptop Keyboard
The tower has three levels for visitors. The third level observatory's upper platform is at 279.11 m (915.7 ft) the highest accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend, bystairs or lift (elevator), HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
to the first and second levels. The walk from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the walk from the first to the second level. Although there are stairs to the third and highest level, these are usually closed to the public and it is usually accessible only by lift. The first and second levels have restaurants. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
The tower has become the most prominent symbol of both Paris and France, often in the establishing shot offilms set in the city.
The design of the Eiffel Tower was originated by Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers who worked for the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a World's Fair which would celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. In May 1884, Koechlin, working at home, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
made an outline drawing of their scheme, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals".[11] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
Initially Eiffel himself showed little enthusiasm, but he did sanction further study of the project, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company's architectural department, to contribute to the design. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base, a glass pavilion to the first level and other embellishments. This enhanced version gained Eiffel's support, and he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, GATEWAY M-6813M Laptop Keyboard
and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885 Eiffel presented a paper on the project to the Société des Ingiénieurs Civils; SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying that the tower would symbolise[12] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
"not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's gratitude." Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 Laptop Keyboard
Little happened until the beginning of 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as President and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as Minister for Trade. A budget for the Exposition was passed and on 1 May Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition which was being held for a centerpiece for the exposition, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
which effectively made the choice of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion: all entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars.[13] On 12 May a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
scheme and its rivals and on 12 June it presented its decision, which was that all the proposals except Eiffel's were either impractical or insufficiently worked out. After some debate about the exact site for the tower, a contract was finally signed on 8 January 1887. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. HP Compaq G50-124NR laptop keyboard
Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the following twenty years. Eiffel later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.[14] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
The projected tower had been a subject of some controversy, attracting criticism both from those who did not believe that it was feasible and also from those who objected on artistic grounds. Their objections were an expression of a longstanding debate about the relationship between architecture and engineering. DELL NSK-DG101 laptop keyboard
This came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: A "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architectCharles Garnier and including some of the most important figures ofHP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
the French arts establishment, including Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet: a petition was sent to Charles Alphand, the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, and was published by Le Temps.[15] Compaq Presario CQ56-103EG laptop keyboard
"We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection…of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower … SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint-Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years…we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal" Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian Pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way ? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris ?" TOSHIBA Satellite A300-1BZ laptop keyboard
[16] These criticisms were also masterfully dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, ironically[17] saying "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
one can tell that…this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time", and going on to point out that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before and was already under construction. SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
Indeed, Garnier had been a member of the Tower Commission that had assessed the various proposals, and had raised no objection. TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6829 laptop keyboard
Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, HP Pavilion dv6-2131el laptop keyboard
and putting the aesthetic argument for the Tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony?"[18]
Some of the protestors were to change their minds when the tower was built: others remained unconvinced. Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.[19] Today, the Tower is widely considered to be a striking piece ofstructural art. HP Mini 210-2103tu laptop keyboard
Work on the foundations started in January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg but the other two, HP 640208-001 Laptop Keyboard
being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft)[20] ACER 90.4C507.01D Laptop Keyboard
to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block built of limestone each with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork. Each shoe was anchored into the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. ACER KB.INT00.058 Laptop Keyboard
The foundations were complete by 30 June and the erection of the ironwork began. The very visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that was entailed: Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed.[21] The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.04 in) HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from the factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/W Laptop Keyboard
the bolts being replaced by rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all there were 18,038 pieces joined by two and a half million rivets.[22] TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard
At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers but about halfway to the first level construction was paused in order to construct a substantial timber scaffold. This caused a renewal of the concerns about the structural soundness of the project, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide!" and "Gustave Eiffel has gone mad: he has been confined in an Asylum" appeared in the popular press.[23] At this stage a small "creeper" crane was installed in each leg, designed to move up the tower as construction progressed and making use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in each leg. ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi Laptop Keyboard
The critical stage of joining the four legs at the first level was complete by March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost precision, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs: hydraulicjacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
each capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and in addition the legs had been intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Although construction involved 300 on-site employees, only one person died thanks to Eiffel's stringent safety precautions and use of movable stagings, guard-rails, and screens.
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and on the 31st Eiffel celebrated this by leading a group of government officials, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Since the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, Eiffel frequently stopping to make explanations of various features. HP COMPAQ NC6320 Laptop Keyboard
Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including Nouguier, Compagnon, the President of the City Council and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré completed the climb. HP Mini 210-2040br laptop keyboard
At 2.35 Eiffel hoisted a largetricolore, to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired from the lower level.[24] There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and the fitting out of the facilities for visitors, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the Exposition on 6 May, and even then the lifts had not been completed. SONY VAIO PCG-FR495EP laptop keyboard
The tower was an immediate success with the public, and lengthy queues formed to make the ascent. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been nearly two million visitors.[25] HP Pavilion dv6-3030sp laptop keyboard
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years; it was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it could be easily demolished) but as the tower proved valuable for communication purposes, SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
it was allowed to remain after the expiration of the permit. In the opening weeks of World War I, powerful radio transmitters were fitted to the tower in order to jam German communications. This seriously hindered their advance on Paris, and contributed to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne.[26] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French so that Adolf Hitler would have to climb the steps to the summit. The parts to repair them were allegedly impossible to obtain because of the war. HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
In 1940 German soldiers had to climb to the top to hoist the swastika,[31] but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
It was said that Hitler conquered France, but did not conquer the Eiffel Tower. A Frenchman scaled the tower during the German occupation to hang the French flag. In August 1944, when the Allies were nearing Paris, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. Some say Hitler was later persuaded to keep the tower intact so it could later be used for communications. The lifts of the Tower were working normally within hours of the Liberation of Paris.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
t the time the tower was built many people were shocked by its daring shape. Eiffel was criticised for the design and accused of trying to create something artistic, or inartistic according to the viewer, without regard to engineering. Eiffel and his engineers, however, as experienced bridge builders, SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
understood the importance of wind forces and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world they had to be certain it would withstand the wind. In an interview reported in the newspaper Le Temps, Eiffel said: ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Now to what phenomenon did I give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be […] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.[40]
Researchers have found that Eiffel used empirical and graphical methods accounting for the effects of wind rather than a specific mathematical formula. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
Careful examination of the tower shows a basically exponential shape; actually two different exponentials, the lower section overdesigned to ensure resistance to wind forces. Several mathematical explanations have been proposed over the years for the success of the design; HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard
the most recent is described as a nonlinear integral equation based on counterbalancing the wind pressure on any point on the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.[41][42] As a demonstration of the tower's effectiveness in wind resistance, it sways only 6–7 cm (2–3 in) in the wind.[5][41][42] SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
top.[43] On occasion the color of the paint is changed; the tower is currently painted a shade of bronze.[44] On the first floor there are interactive consoles hosting a poll for the color to use for a future session of painting. ACER TravelMate 2423NWXCi laptop keyboard
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grillwork arches, added in Stephen Sauvestre's sketches, which served to reassure visitors that the structure was safe, and to frame views of other nearby architecture.[45][46][47] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
One of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven stories high, only a small number of taller buildings have a clear view of the tower. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7222 laptop keyboard
The original lifts (elevators) to the first and second floors were provided by two companies. Both companies had to overcome many technical obstacles as neither company (or indeed any company) had experience with installing lifts climbing to such heights with large loads. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The slanting tracks with changing angles further complicated the problems. The East and West lifts were supplied by the French company Roux Combaluzier Lepape, using hydraulically powered chains and rollers. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard
The North and South lifts were provided by the American company Otis using car designs similar to the original installation but using an improved hydraulic and cable scheme. The French lifts had a very poor performance and were replaced with the current installations in 1897 (West HP G62-120SL laptop keyboard
Pillar) and 1899 (East Pillar) by Fives-Lille using an improved hydraulic and rope scheme. Both of the original installations operated broadly on the principle of the Fives-Lille lifts.[50][51]
The Fives-Lille lifts from ground level to the first and second levels are operated by cables and pulleys driven by massive water-powered pistons. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
The hydraulic scheme was somewhat unusual for the time in that it included three large counterweights of 200 tonnes each sitting on top of hydraulic rams which doubled up as accumulators for the water. HP Pavilion dv3-2015tx laptop keyboard
As the lifts ascend the inclined arc of the pillars, the angle of ascent changes. The two lift cabs are kept more or less level and indeed are level at the landings. The cab floors do take on a slight angle at times between landings. HP pavilion DV7-1020ea laptop keyboard
The principle behind the lifts is similar to the operation of a block and tackle but in reverse. Two large hydraulic rams (over 1 metre diameter) with a 16 metre travel are mounted horizontally in the base of the pillar which pushes a carriage ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
(the French word for it translates as chariot and this term will be used henceforth to distinguish it from the lift carriage) with 16 large triple sheaves mounted on it. There are 14 similar sheaves mounted statically. SONY VAIO VGN-AW35GJ laptop keyboard
Six wire ropes are rove back and forth between the sheaves such that each rope passes between the two sets of sheaves seven times. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The ropes then leave the final sheaves on the chariot and pass up through a series of guiding sheaves to above the second floor and then through a pair of triple sheaves back down to the lift carriage again passing guiding sheaves. SONY VGN-FE21H laptop keyboard
This arrangement means that the lift carriage, complete with its cars and passengers, travels 8 times the distance that the rams move the chariot, the 128 metres from the ground to the second floor. SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/B laptop keyboard
The force exerted by the rams also has to be 8 times the total weight of the lift carriage, cars, and passengers, plus extra to account for various losses such as friction. The hydraulic fluid was water, normally stored in three accumulators, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5216 laptop keyboard
complete with counterbalance weights. To make the lift ascend, water was pumped using an electrically driven pump from the accumulators to the two rams. Since the counterbalance weights provided much of the pressure required, HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
the pump only had to provide the extra effort. For the descent, it was only necessary to allow the water to flow back to the accumulators using a control valve. The lifts were operated by an operator perched precariously underneath the lift cars. His position (with a dummy operator) can still be seen on the lifts today. SONY VAIO VGN-NW200 laptop keyboard
The Fives-Lille lifts were completely upgraded in 1986 to meet modern safety requirements and to make the lifts easier to operate. A new computer-controlled system was installed which completely automated the operation. SONY Vaio VGN-AW Laptop Keyboard
One of the three counterbalances was taken out of use, and the cars were replaced with a more modern and lighter structure. Most importantly, the main driving force was removed from the original water pump such that the water hydraulic system provided only a counterbalancing function. HP Pavilion dv6-3111sl Laptop Keyboard
The main driving force was transferred to a 320 kW electrically driven oil hydraulic pump which drives a pair of hydraulic motors on the chariot itself, thus providing the motive power. The new lift cars complete with their carriage and a full 92 passenger load weigh 22 tonnes. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
Owing to elasticity in the ropes and the time taken to get the cars level with the landings, each lift in normal service takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each floor. The average journey time between floors is just 1 minute. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
The original Otis lifts in the North and South pillars in their turn proved to be inferior to the new (in 1899) French lifts and were scrapped from the South pillar in 1900 and from the North pillar in 1913 after failed attempts to repower them with an electric motor. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard
The North and South pillars were to remain without lifts until 1965 when increasing visitor numbers persuaded the operators to install a relatively standard and modern cable hoisted system in the north pillar using a cable-hauled counterbalance weight, but hoisted by a block and tackle system to reduce its travel to one third of the lift travel. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The counterbalance is clearly visible within the structure of the North pillar. This latter lift was upgraded in 1995 with new cars and computer controls.
The South pillar acquired a completely new fairly standard electrically driven lift in 1983 to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. This was also supplied by Otis. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
A further four-ton service lift was added to the South pillar in 1989 by Otis to relieve the main lifts when moving relatively small loads or even just maintenance personnel.
The East and West hydraulic (water) lift works are on display and, at least in theory, are open to the public in a small museum located in base of the East and West tower, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
which is somewhat hidden from public view. Because the massive mechanism requires frequent lubrication and attention, public access is often restricted. However, when open, the wait times are much less than the other, more popular, attractions. The rope mechanism of the North tower is visible to visitors as they exit from the lift. TOSHIBA Satellite A200-1BW Laptop Keyboard
The original lifts from the second to the third floor were also of a water-powered hydraulic design supplied by Léon Edoux. Instead of using a separate counterbalance, the two lift cars counterbalanced each other. HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard
A pair of 81-metre-long hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. A lift car was mounted on top of the rams. Ropes ran from the top of this car up to a sheave on the third level and back down to a second car. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
The result of this arrangement was that each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway, walking between the cars along a narrow gangway with a very impressive and relatively unobstructed downward view. The ten-ton cars held 65 passengers each or up to four tons. SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard
One interesting feature of the original installation was that the hoisting rope ran through guides to retain it on windy days to prevent it flapping and becoming damaged. The guides were mechanically moved out of the way of the ascending car by the movement of the car itself. HP Envy 15-1015tx Laptop Keyboard
In spite of some antifreeze being added to the water that operated this system, it nevertheless had to close to the public from November to March each year. DELL Inspiron 1564 Laptop Keyboard
The original lifts complete with their hydraulic mechanism were completely scrapped in 1982 after 97 years of service. They were replaced with two pairs of relatively standard rope-hoisted cars which were able to operate all the year round. HP 640892-001 Laptop Keyboard
The cars operate in pairs with one providing the counterbalance for the other. Neither car can move unless both sets of doors are closed and both operators have given a start command. The commands from the cars to the hoisting mechanism are by radio, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
obviating the necessity of a control cable. The replacement installation also has the advantage that the ascent can be made without changing cars and has reduced the ascent time from 8 minutes (including change) to 1 minute and 40 seconds. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
This installation also has guides for the hoisting ropes, but they are electrically operated. Once the guide has moved out of the way as the car ascends, it automatically reverses when the car has passed to prevent the mechanism becoming snagged on the car on the downward journey in the event it has failed to completely clear the car. Acer eMachines G730ZG laptop keyboard
Unfortunately these lifts do not have the capacity to move as many people as the three public lower lifts, and long queues to ascend to the third level are common. Most of the intermediate level structure present on the tower today was installed when the lifts were replaced and allows maintenance workers to take the lift halfway. HP Mini 110-3102sl laptop keyboard
The replacement of these lifts allowed the restructuring of the criss-cross beams in upper part of the tower and further allowed the installation of two emergency staircases. These replaced the dangerous winding stairs that were installed when the tower was constructed. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215S laptop keyboard
The tower and its representations have long been in the public domain. However, a French court ruled, in June 1990, that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989, for the tower's 100th anniversary, was an "HP V107046AS1 laptop keyboard
original visual creation" protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992.[56][dead link]The Société d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel (SETE) SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
now considers any illumination of the tower to be under copyright.[57] As a result, it is no longer legal to publish contemporary photographs of the tower at night without permission in France and some other countries. SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then the Société nouvelle d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in January 2005, HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard
"It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways we don't approve." However, it also potentially has the effect of prohibiting tourist photographs of the tower at night from being published,[58] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the tower. Besides, French doctrine and jurisprudence traditionally allow pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the main represented subject,[59] HP Pavilion dm1-1010et laptop keyboard
a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Thus, SETE could not claim copyright on photographs or panoramas of Paris incorporating the lit tower.
The Washington Monument is an obelisk on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and the first American president. HP Pavilion DV6-1160ev laptop keyboard
The monument, made of marble, granite, and bluestone gneiss,[1] is both the world's tallest stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk, standing 555 feet 5 1⁄8 inches (169.294 m) tall.[n 1] Taller monumental columns exist, but they are neither all stone nor true obelisks.[n 2] HP HDX18-1299EB laptop keyboard
Construction of the monument began in 1848, was halted from 1854 to 1877, and finally completed in 1884. The hiatus in construction happened because of co-option by the Know Nothing party, a lack of funds, and the intervention of theAmerican Civil War. A difference in shading of the marble, ACER Aspire 5625G laptop keyboard
visible approximately 150 feet (46 m) or 27% up, shows where construction was halted. Its original design was by Robert Mills, an architect of the 1840s, but his design was modified significantly when construction resumed. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the capstone was set on December 6, 1884, and the completed monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885.[7] It officially opened October 9, 1888. Upon completion, SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
it became the world's tallest structure, a title previously held by the Cologne Cathedral. The monument held this designation until 1889, when the Eiffel Tower was completed in Paris, France. FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
The monument stands due east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial. The monument was damaged during theVirginia earthquake of August 23, 2011 and Hurricane Irene in the same year; as of 2013 it remains closed to the public while the structure is assessed and repaired.[8] COMPAQ Presario V6307TU Laptop Keyboard
The National Park Service estimates the monument will be closed until 2014. Difficulties in repair include complexities such as the time needed to erect scaffolding.[9]
Hailed as the father of his country, and the leader who was "first in war, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen", George Washington (1732–1799) was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1798. Even his erstwhile enemy King George III called him "the greatest character of the age".[10] HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
At his death in 1799 he left a critical legacy: he exemplified the core ideals of the American Revolution and the new nation: republican virtue and devotion to civic duty. Washington was the unchallenged public icon of American military and civic patriotism. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
He was also identified with the Federalist Party that lost control of the national government in 1800 to the Jeffersonian Republicans, who were reluctant to celebrate the hero of the opposition party.[11] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
Progress towards a memorial finally began in 1832. That year, which marked the 100th anniversary of Washington's birth, a large group of concerned citizens formed the Washington National Monument Society. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
In 1836, after they had raised $28,000 in donations ($15,200,000 in 2011[16]), they announced a competition for the design of the memorial.[17]
On September 23, 1835, the board of managers of the society described their expectations:[18] FUJITSU Lifebook E8110 Laptop Keyboard
It is proposed that the contemplated monument shall be like him in whose honor it is to be constructed, unparalleled in the world, and commensurate with the gratitude, liberality, and patriotism of the people by whom it is to be erected ... [It] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
should blend stupendousness with elegance, and be of such magnitude and beauty as to be an object of pride to the American people, HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
and of admiration to all who see it. Its material is intended to be wholly American, and to be of marble and granite brought from each state, that each state may participate in the glory of contributing material as well as in funds to its construction. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
The society held a competition for designs in 1836. The winner, architect Robert Mills, was well qualified for the commission. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
The citizens of Baltimore had chosen him to build a monument to Washington, and he had designed a tall Greek column surmounted by a statue of the President. Mills also knew the capital well, having just been chosen Architect of Public Buildings for Washington. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
His design called for a tall obelisk—an upright, four-sided pillar that tapers as it rises—with a nearly flat top. He surrounded the obelisk with a circular colonnade, the top of which would feature Washington standing in a chariot. Inside the colonnade would be statues of 30 prominent Revolutionary War heroes. ACER Aspire 8935 Laptop Keyboard
One part of Mills' elaborate design that was built was the doorway surmounted by an Egyptian-style Winged sun. It was removed when construction resumed after 1884. A photo can be seen in The Egyptian Revival by Richard G. Carrot.[19] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard
Criticism of Mills' design and its estimated price tag of more than $1 million ($543,000,000 in 2011[16])[20] caused the society to hesitate. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Its members decided to start building the obelisk, and to leave the question of the colonnade for later. They believed that if they used the $87,000 they had already collected to start work, the appearance of the monument would spur further donations that would allow them to complete the project. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Starting with victory in the Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Democratic-Republican Party (Jeffersonian Republicans) took control of Congress in 1801.[12] ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men. They also blocked his image on coins or the celebration of his birthday. Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial.[13] SONY VGN-FE Series laptop keyboard
As early as 1783, the Continental Congress had resolved "That an equestrian statue of George Washington be erected at the place where the residence of Congress shall be established." The proposal called for engraving on the statue which explained it had been erected "in honor of George Washington, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5306 laptop keyboard
the illustriousCommander-in-Chief of the Armies of the United States of America during the war which vindicated and secured their liberty, sovereignty, and independence."[14]Currently, there are two equestrian statues of President Washington in Washington, ACER TravelMate 6292 laptop keyboard
DC. One is located in Washington Circle at the intersection of the Foggy Bottom and West End neighborhoods at the north end of the George Washington University, and the other is in the gardens of the National Cathedral. HP G61-420SL laptop keyboard
Ten days after Washington's death, a Congressional committee recommended a different type of monument. John Marshall, a Representative from Virginia (who later became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court) proposed that a tomb be erected within the Capitol. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
But a lack of funds, disagreement over what type of memorial would best honor the country's first president, and the Washington family's reluctance to move his body prevented progress on any project.[15] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard
The Washington Monument was originally intended to be located at the point at which a line running directly south from the center of the White House crossed a line running directly west from the center of the Capitol. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant's 1791 "Plan of the city intended for the permanent seat of t(he) government of the United States ..." designated this point as the location of the equestrian statue of George Washington that the Continental Congress had voted for in 1783.[21][n ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
3] The ground at the intended location proved to be too unstable to support a structure as heavy as the planned obelisk; at that site, 390 feet (119 m) WNW from the Monument, there now stands a small monolith called the Jefferson Pier. HP G72-b50US Laptop Keyboard
Excavation for the foundation of the Monument began in early 1848.[25] The cornerstone was laid as part of an elaborate Fourth of July ceremony hosted by the Freemasons, an organization to which Washington belonged. ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard
Speeches that day showed the country continued to revere Washington. One celebrant noted, "No more Washingtons shall come in our time ... But his virtues are stamped on the heart of mankind. He who is great in the battlefield looks upward to the generalship of Washington. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
He who grows wise in counsel feels that he is imitating Washington. He who can resign power against the wishes of a people, has in his eye the bright example of Washington."
Construction continued until 1854, when donations ran out.[26] The next year, Congress voted to appropriate $200,000 ($68.1 million in 2011[16] HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
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) to continue the work, but rescinded before the money could be spent. This reversal came because of a new policy the society had adopted in 1849. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Members of the society believed this practice would make citizens feel they had a part in building the monument, and it would cut costs by limiting the amount of stone that had to be bought. Blocks of Maryland marble, FUJITSU Lifebook E8110 Laptop Keyboard
graniteand sandstone steadily appeared at the site. American Indian tribes, professional organizations, societies, businesses and foreign nations donated stones that were 4 feet by 2 feet by 12–18 inches (1.2 m by 0.6 m by 0.3 – 0.5 m). Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
One stone was donated by the Ryukyu Kingdom and brought back by Commodore Matthew C. Perry,[27] but never arrived in Washington (it was replaced in 1989).[28] Many of the stones donated for the monument carried inscriptions which did not commemorate George Washington. COMPAQ Presario CQ41-219AX laptop keyboard
For example, one from the Templars of Honor and Temperance stated "We will not buy, sell, or use as a beverage, any spiritous or malt liquors, Wine, Cider, or any other Alcoholic Liquor." It was just one commemorative stone that started the events that stopped the Congressional appropriation and ultimately construction altogether. In the early 1850s, TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 laptop keyboard
Pope Pius IX contributed a block of marble. In March 1854, members of the anti-Catholic, nativist American Party — better known as the "Know-Nothings"—stole the Pope's stone as a protest and supposedly threw it into the Potomac (it was replaced in 1982).[29] Congress immediately rescinded its $200,000 contribution. SONY VAIO VGN-NW28E/N laptop keyboard
The Know-Nothings retained control of the society until 1858, adding 13 courses of masonry to the monument, all of which were of such poor quality that they were later removed. Unable to collect enough money to finish work, they increasingly lost public support. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
The Know-Nothings eventually gave up and returned all records to the original society, but the stoppage in construction continued into, then after, the Civil War.[29]
Interest in the monument grew after the Civil War. Engineers studied the foundation several times to determine if it was strong enough. SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
In 1876, the Centennial of the Declaration of Independence, Congress agreed to appropriate another $200,000 to resume construction.[25] The monument, which had stood for nearly 20 years at less than one-third of its proposed height, now seemed ready for completion. HP G61-415SA laptop keyboard
Before work could begin again, arguments about the most appropriate design resumed. Many people thought a simple obelisk, one without the colonnade, would be too bare. Architect Mills was reputed to have said omitting the colonnade would make the monument look like "a stalk of asparagus"; another critic said it offered "little ... to be proud of."[15] HP Pavilion G60-213EM laptop keyboard
This attitude led people to submit alternative designs. Both the Washington National Monument Society and Congress held discussions about how the monument should be finished. The society considered five new designs, concluding that the one by William Wetmore Story seemed "vastly superior in artistic taste and beauty." HP Pavilion G60-120EM laptop keyboard
Congress deliberated over those five as well as Mills' original. While it was deciding, it ordered work on the obelisk to continue. Finally, the members of the society agreed to abandon the colonnade and alter the obelisk so it conformed to classical Egyptian proportions.[18] SONY VAIO VGN-NW51FB laptop keyboard
Construction resumed in 1879 under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Lincoln Casey of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Casey redesigned the foundation, strengthening it so it could support a structure that ultimately weighed more than 40,000 tons. HP G72-b50US laptop keyboard
He then followed the society's orders and figured out what to do with the commemorative stones that had accumulated. Though many people ridiculed them, Casey managed to install most of the stones in the interior walls — one stone was found at the bottom of the elevator shaft in 1951.[28] SONY VAIO VGN-N250E/W laptop keyboard
One difficulty that is visible to this day is that the builders were unable to find the same quarry stone used in the initial construction, and as a result, the bottom third of the monument is a slightly lighter shade than the rest of the construction. HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 laptop keyboard
The building of the monument proceeded quickly after Congress had provided sufficient funding. In four years, it was completed, with the 100-ounce (2.85 kg) aluminum apex/lightning-rod being put in place on December 6, 1884.[25] HP Pavilion DV6-1170ep laptop keyboard
The apex was the largest single piece of aluminum cast at the time, when aluminum commanded a price comparable to silver.[30] Two years later, the Hall–Héroult process made aluminum easier to produce and the price of aluminum plummeted, DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
making the once-valuable apex nearly worthless, though it still provided a lustrous, non-rusting apex that served as the original lightning rod.[31] The monument opened to the public on October 9, 1888.[32] SONY 147915321 laptop keyboard
At the time of its completion, it was the tallest building in the world, a title it retained until the Eiffel tower was completed in 1889. It remains the tallest stone structure in the world.[n 2] It is the tallest building in Washington, D.C.. The Heights of Buildings Act of 1910 restricts new building heights to no more than 20 feet (6.1 m) HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
greater than the width of the adjacent street. This monument is vastly taller than the obelisks around the capitals of Europe and in Egypt andEthiopia, but ordinary antique obelisks were quarried as a monolithic block of stone, and were therefore seldom taller than approximately 100 feet (30 m).[34] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The Washington Monument attracted enormous crowds before it officially opened. During the six months that followed its dedication, 10,041 people climbed the 897 steps and 50 landings to the top. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
After the elevator that had been used to raise building materials was altered to carry passengers, the number of visitors grew rapidly. As early as 1888, an average of 55,000 people per month went to the top, DELL Latitude D505 Laptop Keyboard
and today the Washington Monument has more than 800,000 visitors each year. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the national memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
The stairs are no longer accessible to the general public due to safety issues and vandalism of the interior commemorative stones.
In the early 1900s unsightly material started oozing out between the outer stones of the first construction period below the 150-foot mark. Tourists referred to this as "geological tuberculosis". HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
This was caused by the weathering of the cement and rubble filler between the outer and inner walls. As the lower section of the monument was exposed to cold and hot and damp and dry weather conditions, the material dissolved and worked its way through the cracks between the stones of the outer wall, solidifying as it dripped down their outer surface.[35] COMPAQ Presario CQ61 Laptop Keyboard
In the early 1930s a steel framework was erected surrounding the entire monument to clean it by sandblasting. A few local residents were allowed to ride a cage elevator to the top of the shaft and climb a caged ladder up the side of the pyramidion to a platform surrounding the apex to touch it.[36] HP G72-b50US Laptop Keyboard
Earlier 1900 plans to build sunken gardens near the monument with trees and other foliage were never implemented.[37]
For ten hours in December 1982, the Washington Monument was "held hostage" by a nuclear arms protester, Norman Mayer, HP G42-245BR Laptop Keyboard
claiming to have explosives in a van he drove to the monument's base. Eight tourists trapped in the monument at the time the standoff began were set free, and the incident ended with U.S. Park Police opening fire on Mayer, killing him. The monument was undamaged in the incident, and it was discovered later that Mayer did not have explosives.[38][39] GATEWAY MT6919 Laptop Keyboard
The monument underwent an extensive restoration project between 1998 and 2001. During this time it was completely covered in scaffolding designed by the American architect Michael Graves (who was also responsible for the interior changes).[40] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
The project included cleaning, repairing and repointing the monument's exterior and interior stonework. The stone in public accessible interior spaces was encased in glass to prevent vandalism, while new windows with narrower frames were installed (to increase the viewing space). COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard
New exhibits celebrating the life of George Washington, and the monument's place in history, were also added.[41] A temporary interactive visitors center, dubbed the "Discovery Channel Center" was also constructed during the project. The center provided a simulated ride to the top of the monument, DELL 08WK6F Laptop Keyboard
and shared information with visitors during phases in which the monument was closed.[42] The majority of the project's phases were completed by summer 2000, allowing the monument to reopen July 31, 2000.[41] Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
The monument temporarily closed again on December 4, 2000 to allow a new elevator cab to be installed, completing the final phase of the restoration project. The new cab included glass windows, Lenovo 45N2036 laptop keyboard
allowing visitors to see some of the 193 commemorative stones embedded in the monument's walls. The installation of the cab took much longer than anticipated, and the monument did not reopen until February 22, 2002. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-152 laptop keyboard
The final cost of the restoration project was $10.5 million.[43]
On September 7, 2004 the monument closed for a $15 million renovation, which included numerous security upgrades and design of the monument grounds by landscape architect, Laurie Olin. SONY VAIO VPCF121FX laptop keyboard
The renovations were due partly to security concerns following the September 11 attacks and the start of the War on Terror. The monument reopened April 1, 2005, while the surrounding grounds remained closed until the landscape was finished later that summer.[44][45] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard
On August 23, 2011, the Washington Monument sustained damage during the 2011 Virginia earthquake.[46] A National Park Service spokesperson reported that inspectors discovered a crack near the top of the structure, and announced that the monument would be closed indefinitely.[47][48] SONY Vaio VGN-FW190 laptop keyboard
A block in the pyramidion also was partially dislodged, and pieces of stone, stone chips, mortar, and paint chips came free of the monument and "littered" the interior stairs and observation deck.[49] TTOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
he Park Service said it was bringing in two structural engineering firms (Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. and Tipping Mar Associates) with extensive experience in historic buildings and earthquake-damaged structures to assess the monument.[50] Packard Bell Easynote LM82 laptop keyboard
Officials said an examination of the monument's exterior revealed a "debris field" of mortar and pieces of stone around the base of the monument, and several "substantial" pieces of stone had fallen inside the memorial.[48] A crack in the central stone of the west face of the pyramidion was 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide and 4 feet (1.2 m) long.[51][52] HP G72-b50US laptop keyboard
Park Service inspectors also discovered that the elevator system had been damaged, and was operating only to the 250-foot (76 m) level, but was soon repaired.[53]
On September 27, 2011, Denali National Park ranger Brandon Latham arrived to assist four climbers belonging to a "difficult access" team from Wiss, Janney, HP G42-245BR laptop keyboard
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Elstner Associates.[48][52] The reason for the inspection was the park agency's suspicion that there were more cracks on the monument's upper section not visible from the inside. The agency said it filled the cracks which occurred on August 23. But after Hurricane Irene hit the D.C. area on August 27, Lenovo IdeaPad Y710 4054 laptop keyboard
water was discovered inside the memorial, leading the Park Service to suspect there was more undiscovered damage.[48] The rappellers used radios to report what they found to engineering experts on the ground.[54] Wiss, Janney, SONY VAIO VGN-N21M/W laptop keyboard
Elstner climber Dave Megerle took three hours to set up the rappelling equipment and set up a barrier around the monument's lightning rod system atop the pyramidion;[51] it was the first time the hatch in the pyramidion had been open since 2000.[51] HP Pavilion DV6-1122us laptop keyboard
The external inspection of the monument was completed October 5, 2011. In addition to the four-foot long west crack, the inspection found several corner cracks and surface spalls (pieces of stone broken loose) at or near the top of the monument, and more loss of joint mortar lower down the monument. SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard
The full report was due November 2011.[55] Bob Vogel, Superintendent of the National Mall and Memorial Parks, emphasized that the monument was not in danger of collapse. "It's structurally sound and not going anywhere", he told the national media at a press conference on September 26, 2011.[52] FUJITSU Siemens M1010 laptop keyboard
More than $200,000 was spent between August 24 and September 26 inspecting the structure.[48] The National Park Service said that it would soon begin sealing the exterior cracks on the monument to protect it from rain and snow.[54][56] Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard
On July 9, 2012, The National Park Service announced that the monument could be closed for repairs until 2014.[57] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
NPS said a portion of the plaza at the base of the monument will be removed and scaffolding constructed around the exterior. In July 2013, lighting was added to the scaffolding.[58] Some stone pieces saved during the 2011 inspection will be refastened to the monument, while "Dutchman patches"[59][60] HP G62-a23EE Laptop Keyboard
will be used in other places. Several of the stone lips which help hold the pyramidion's 2,000-pound (910 kg) exterior slabs in place were also damaged, so engineers will install metal brackets to more securely fasten them to the monument.[61] GATEWAY MX8738 Laptop Keyboard
Construction details
The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco style skyscraper in New York City, located on the east side of Manhattan in theTurtle Bay area at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue. At 1,046 feet (319 m),[1][6][7] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP09 Laptop Keyboard
the structure was the world's tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931.[8] It is still the tallest brick building in the world, albeit with an internal steel skeleton. TOSHIBA Satellite 1805-s254 Laptop Keyboard
After the destruction of theWorld Trade Center, it was again the second-tallest building in New York City until December 2007, when the spire was raised on the 1,200-foot (365.8 m) Bank of America Tower, ACER NSK-AL01D Laptop Keyboard
pushing the Chrysler Building into third position. In addition, The New York Times Building, which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height.[9]Both buildings were then pushed into 4th position, when the under construction One World Trade Center surpassed their height. HP G62-a38SE Laptop Keyboard
The Chrysler Building is a classic example of Art Deco architecture and considered by many contemporary architects to beone of the finest buildings in New York City. In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.[10] HP G62-a30EB Laptop Keyboard
It was the headquarters of the Chrysler Corporation from 1930 until the mid-1950s. Although the building was built and designed specifically for the car manufacturer, the corporation did not pay for the construction of it and never owned it, as Walter P. Chrysler decided to pay for it himself, so that his children could inherit it.[11] Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel-like glass crown. It also featured a base in which the showroom windows were tripled in height and topped by 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners, Compaq Presario CQ35-101TU laptop keyboard
creating an impression that the tower appeared physically and visually light as if floating in mid-air.[11]The height of the skyscraper was also originally designed to be 246 meters (807 ft).[14] However, the design proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds, who disapproved of Van Alen's original plan.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/W laptop keyboard
The design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler, who worked with Van Alen and redesigned the skyscraper for additional stories; it was eventually revised to be 282 m (925 ft) tall.[14] SAMSUNG N128 laptop keyboard
As Walter Chrysler was the chairman of the Chrysler Corporation and intended to make the building into Chrysler's headquarters,[14]various architectural details and especially the building's gargoyles were modeled after Chrysler automobile products like the hood ornaments of the Plymouth; HP Pavilion dv6-3107ax laptop keyboard
they exemplify the machine age in the 1920s (see below).[16][17] Construction commenced on September 19, 1928.[14] In total, almost 400,000 rivets were used[14] and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid, SONY VAIO VGN-CR21/B laptop keyboard
to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper.[18] Contractors, builders and engineers were joined by other building-services experts to coordinate construction.
Prior to its completion, the building stood about even with a rival project at 40 Wall Street, designed by H. Craig Severance. HP Pavilion dv3-2305tx laptop keyboard
Severance increased the height of his project and then publicly claimed the title of the world's tallest building.[19](This distinction excluded structures that were not fully habitable, such as theEiffel Tower.)[20] In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a 38-meter (125 ft) long spire[21] and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building. ACER K052030A1 laptop keyboard
The spire was delivered to the site in four different sections.[22] On October 23, 1929, the bottom section of the spire was hoisted onto the top of the building's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building. The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in sequential order in just 90 minutes.[23]
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It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet (305 m). Van Alen's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.[11] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27, 1930, the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building, but the Chrysler Building is still the world's tallest steel-supported brick building. SONY VAIO VGN-CR25G laptop keyboard
As of November 2, 2011, the building's height was surpassed by the under construction One World Trade Center at the height of 1,106 feet.[24][25]
The east building wall of the base out of which the tower rises runs at a slant to the Manhattan street grid, following a property line that predated the Commissioners' Plan of 1811.[26] T HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa laptop keyboard
he land on which the Chrysler Building stands was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art[27] in 1902. The land was originally leased to William H. Reynolds, but, TOSHIBA Satellite 1805-s254 laptop keyboard
when he was unable to raise money for the project, the building and the development rights to the land were acquired by Walter P. Chrysler in 1928.[27][28] Contrary to popular belief, the Chrysler Corporation was never involved in the construction or ownership of the Chrysler Building, ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard
although it was built and designed for the corporation and served as its headquarters until the mid-1950s. It was a project of Walter P. Chrysler for his children.[11]
The ownership of the building has changed several times. The Chrysler family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf,[29] TOSHIBA Satellite A200-1TJ laptop keyboard
and in 1957 it was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, and owned by Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company. The lobby was refurbished and the facade renovated in 1978–1979.[30] TDELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
he building was owned by Jack Kent Cooke in 1979. The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995. In 1998, Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group bought the Chrysler Building and the adjoining Kent Building in 1997 for about $220 million (equal to $320 million in 2012) HP G62-a30EB laptop keyboard
from a consortium of banks and the estate of Jack Kent Cooke. Tishman Speyer Properties had negotiated a 150-year lease on the land from Cooper Union and the college continues to own both the land under the Chrysler Building and the building itself. Cooper Union's name is on the deed. SONY VAIO VGN-FS980 laptop keyboard
In 2001, a 75% stake in the building management contract was sold, for US$ 300 million (equal to $400 million in 2012), to TMW, the German arm of an Atlanta-based investment fund.[31] On June 11, HP Pavilion dm1-1002tu laptop keyboard
2008 it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, and a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$ 800 million.[32] SONY VAIO PCG-FX203/K Laptop Keyboard
On July 9, 2008 it was announced that the transaction had been completed, and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was now the 90% owner of the building.[33][34]
The Chrysler Building is also renowned and recognized for its terraced crown. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault constructed into seven concentric members with transitioning setbacks, mounted up one behind another.[37] Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
The stainless-steel cladding is ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburstpattern with many triangular vaulted windows, transitioning into smaller segments of the seven narrow setbacks of the facade of the terraced crown. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
The entire crown is clad with silvery "Enduro KA-2" metal, an austenitic stainless steel developed in Germany by Krupp and marketed under the trade name "Nirosta" (a German acronym for nichtrostender Stahl, meaning "non-rusting steel").[11][38] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
Art Deco in France found its American equivalent in the design of the New York skyscrapers of the 1920s. The Chrysler Building ... was one of the most accomplished essays in the style."
"The design, originally drawn up for building contractor William H. HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
Reynolds, was finally sold to Walter P. Chrysler, who wanted a provocative building that would not merely scrape the sky but positively pierce it. Its 77 floors briefly making it the highest building in the world – at least until the Empire State Building was completed – FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
it became the star of the New York skyline, thanks above all to its crowning peak. In a deliberate strategy of myth generation, Van Alen planned a dramatic moment of revelation: the entire seven-storey pinnacle, ACER PK130AE2000 laptop keyboard
complete with special-steel facing, was first assembled inside the building, and then hoisted into position through the roof opening and anchored on top in just one and a half hours. All of a sudden it was there—a sensational fait accompli." HP COMPAQ NX7300 Laptop Keyboard
When the building first opened, it contained a public viewing gallery on the 71st floor, which was closed to the public in 1945. This floor is now the highest occupied floor of the Chrysler Building, it was occupied by an office space management firm in 1986.[39] DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
The private Cloud Club occupied a three-floor high space from the 66th–68th floors, but closed in the late 1970s. Above the 71st floor, the stories of the building are designed mostly for exterior appearance, HP COMPAQ NC6320 Laptop Keyboard
functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire. These top stories are very narrow with low, sloped ceilings, and are useful only for holding radio-broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment.[14] GATEWAY AEMA1TAU119 Laptop Keyboard
Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originally transmitted from the top of the Chrysler in the 1940s and early 1950s, before moving to the Empire State Building.[14] For many years, WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
also used the Chrysler Building as a transmission site, but they also moved to the Empire State Building by the 1970s. There are currently no commercial broadcast stations located at the Chrysler Building.
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