Ferdinand Lassalle
Ferdinand Lassalle was born on 11 April 1825 in Breslau (Wrocław), Silesia. Ferdinand's father was a silk merchant and intended his son for a business career, sending him to the commercial school at Leipzig.[1] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
However, Lassalle soon transferred to university, studying first in the University of Breslauand later at the University of Berlin.[1] There Lassalle studied philology and philosophy and became an devotee of the philosophical system of Georg Hegel. DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle passed his university examinations with distinction in 1845 and thereafter traveled to Paris to write a book on Heraclitus.[1] HP Mini 210-2004sa Laptop Keyboard
There Lassalle met the poet Heinrich Heine, who wrote of his intense young friend in 1846: "I have found in no one so much passion and clearness of intellect united in action. You have good right to be audacious – we others only usurp this divine right, this heavenly privilege."[2] HP 441426-001 Laptop Keyboard
Back in Berlin to work on his book, Lassalle soon found himself ceasing his project in favor of a different mission. Lassalle met Countess Sophie vonHatzfeldt, a woman in her early 40s who had been separated from her husband for many years, and had ongoing difficulties with him regarding an equitable division of property. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle volunteered himself to the countess's cause, an offer which was accepted readily.[3] Lassalle first challenged the nobleman to a duel, an offer which was rejected immediately.[3] DELL Inspiron 1435 Laptop Keyboard
An extensive legal case ensued in which Lassalle represented Countess von Hatzfeldt's interests, performed in 36 courtrooms during the period of 8 years.[4] Ultimately, a compromise was negotiated, bringing the countess a substantial fortune, from which she paid Lassalle an annual income of 5000 thalers (about £750) for the rest of his life.[5] HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle was a committed republican from an early age and during the German Revolutions of 1848 he spoke at public meetings for the revolutionary-democratic cause and urged the citizens of Düsseldorf to prepare themselves COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
for armed resistance to the November decision of the Prussian government to dissolve the National Assembly.[6] Lassalle was subsequently arrested in conjunction with this activity and charged with inciting armed opposition to the state.[7] HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Laptop Keyboard
While Lassalle was ultimately acquitted of this serious charge, he was kept in prison until he could be tried on a lesser charge of inciting resistance against public officials.[8] Lassalle was ultimately convicted of this subsidiary charge, for which the 23-year old served a sentence of six months in prison.[8] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Banned from residence in Berlin in the aftermath of his conviction, Lassalle began residence in the Rhineland, where he continued to pursue the lawsuit of the Countess von Hatzfeldt (settled in 1854) and finished his work on the philosophy of Heraclitus, which was completed in 1857 and published in two volumes the next year.[9] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
Reaction to the book was mixed, with some declaring the work seminal while others considered it as a recitation of Hegelian axioms.[10] Even the book's detractors admired the scope of the work, however, and the publication gave Lassalle lasting cachet among the German intelligentsia.[10] HP 599572-001 Laptop Keyboard
During this interval Lassalle was not active politically, although he retained an interest in labour affairs. Instead his interests changed again, abandoning legal practice and philosophy in favor of drama, authoring a play called "Franz von Sickingen, a Historical Tragedy."[11] Sent in anonymously the Royal Theatre, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
the play was rejected by a manager, causing Lassalle to publish it by his own name in 1859.[11] The work was characterized by Edward Bernstein, an early and sympathetic biographer, as awkward and prone to excessive oratory – unsuited for the stage despite several effective scenes.[11] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Lasalle longed to reside in Berlin and in 1859 he surreptitiously made his return, disguised as a wagon driver.[12] Lassalle appealed to his friend the aging scholar Alexander von Humboldt to intercede with the king on his behalf to formally permit his return.[12] This was successfully accomplished and Lassalle was again officially allowed to reside in the Prussian capital.[12] HP G42-392TX Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle avoided revolutionary activity for several years thereafter, seeking to avoid official repercussions.[12] Instead Lassalle next became political commentator in writing a short work on the war in Italy in which he warned Prussia against rushing to the aid of the Austrian Empire in its war withFrance. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle followed this with a hefty work on legal theory, a two volume treatise published in 1861 entitled Das System der erworbenen Rechte (The System of Acquired Rights).[13] In this book Lassalle sought, in the words of Edward Bernstein, "to establish a legal and scientific principle which shall once for all determine under what circumstances, DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
and how far laws may be retroactive without violating the idea of right itself" – that is, determining the circumstances under which laws may be made retroactive when they come into conflict with previously established laws.[14] HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
In the 1850s and '60s, Karl Marx was in regular contact with Lassalle. Their relationship was superficially cordial, and Marx asked for a loan of £30.[15]Yet in letters to Friedrich Engels, Marx made disparaging and racist comments about Lassalle, speculating that his dark complexion and coarse hair were evidence that "Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E125 laptop keyboard
he is descendant from the negroes who joined in the flight of Moses from Egypt (unless his mother or grandmother on the father's side was crossed with a nigger)" and declaring that "the importunity of the fellow is also niggerlike."[16] SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
Only briefly engaged in the revolutionary struggle during 1848, Lassalle reentered public politics in 1862, motivated by aconstitutional struggle in Prussia.[13] King Wilhelm I, who became king on 2 January 1861, had repeatedly clashed with the liberal Chamber of Deputies, resulting in multiple dissolutions of the Diet.[13] HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
As a recognized legal scholar, Lassalle was asked to make public addresses dealing with the nature of the constitution and its relationship to the social forces within society.[17]
In a published speech delivered in Berlin on 12 April 1862, entitled ‘Concerning the particular Connection between the Present Period of History and the Idea of the Working Class’, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
later becoming known as the Workers' Program. Lassalle assigned primacy in society to the press over the state itself in the aftermath of the 1848 revolution – an assertion regarded as dangerous by the Prussian censorship.[18] DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
The entire print run of 3000 copies of the pamphlet of Lassalle's speech was seized by the authorities, who issued a legal charge against Lassalle for allegedly endangering the public peace.[18] HP G42-475TU laptop keyboard
Lassalle was brought to trial to answer this accusation in Berlin on 16 January 1863.[18] After a widely publicized trial at which he presented his own defense, Lassalle was convicted of the charges levied against him, sentenced to four months' imprisonment and assessed the costs of the trial.[19] This term was later replaced by a fine upon appeal.[19] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
Lassalle soon began a new career as a political agitator, traveling around Germany, giving speeches and writing pamphlets, in an attempt to organise and rouse the working class. Lassalle considered Fichte as "one of the mightiest thinkers of all peoples and ages" and in a speech given in May 1862, HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
he praised Fichte's Addresses to the German Nation "which constitute one of the mightiest monuments of fame which our people possesses, and which, in depth and power, far surpass everything of this sort which has been handed down to us from the literature of all time and peoples".[20] SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
Although Lassalle was a member of the Communist League, his politics were strongly opposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; indeed Marx's essay Critique of the Gotha Program is written in part as a reaction to Lassalle's conception of the socialist state. Marx and Engels thought that Lassalle was not a true Communist as he directly influenced Bismarck's government (albeit in secret) in favor of universal manhood suffrage, among other issues. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
In February 1864 Lassalle wrote to Engels, claiming that he although had been a republican since infancy "I have never found anything as ridiculous, corrupt, and in the long run impossible as constitutionalism...I have come to the conviction that nothing could have a greater future or a more beneficent role than the monarchy, SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard
if it could only make up its mind to become a social monarchy. In that case I would passionately bear its banner, and the constitutional theories would be quickly enough thrown into the lumber room".[21] Élie Halévy would later write on this situation: HP 403809-001 Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle was the first man in Germany, the first in Europe, who succeeded in organising a party of socialist action. Yet he viewed the emerging bourgeois parties as more inimical to the working class than the aristocracy and hence he supported universal manhood suffrage at a time when the liberals preferred a limited, DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
property-based suffrage which excluded the working class and enhanced the middle classes. This created a strange alliance between Lassalle and Bismarck. When in 1866 Bismarck founded the Confederation of Northern Germany on a basis of universal suffrage, TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
he was acting on advice which came directly from Lassalle. And I am convinced that after 1878, when he began to practise "State Socialism" and "Christian Socialism" and "Monarchial Socialism," he had not forgotten what he had learnt from the socialist leader."[22] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
As a result, when Lassalle initiated the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein (General German Workers' Association, ADAV) on 23 May 1863, Marx's devotees in Germany did not join it. Lassalle was the first president of this first German labour party, retaining the job from its formation on 23 May 1863 until his death on 31 August 1864. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The only stated purpose of this organization was the winning of equal, universal, and direct suffrage by peaceful and legal means.[23]
On 11 May 1863 Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia, initiated written correspondence with Lassalle. The Bismarck-Lassalle correspondence was discovered only in 1927 and is therefore not mentioned by earlier biographical works.[24] HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
A hand-written note was delivered to Lassalle personally, and the pair met face-to-face within 48 hours thereafter.[24] This proved to be the first of several such meetings, during which Bismarck and Lassalle freely exchanged views on matters of common concern.
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I saw him, and since my first conversation I have never regretted doing so. ...I saw him perhaps three or four times altogether. There was never the possibility of our talks taking the form of political negotiations. What could Lassalle have offered me? He had nothing behind him.... DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
But he attracted me as an individual. He was one of the most intelligent and likable men I had ever come across. He was very ambitious and by no means a republican. He was very much a nationalist and a monarchist. His ideal was the German Empire, TOSHIBA Satellite U205 laptop keyboard
and here was our point of contact. As I have said he was ambitious, on a large scale, and there is perhaps room for doubt as to whether, in his eyes, the German Empire ultimately entailed the Hohenzollern or the Lassalle dynasty.... Our talks lasted for hours and I was always sorry when they came to an end.[25] TOSHIBA Portege M500 laptop keyboard
Lassalle made multiple secret appeals from 1864 to Bismarck – later the main proponent of the Anti-Socialist Laws – both in favor of the immediate implementation of progressive policies such as universal suffrage as well as for the protection of his own publications from police seizure.[26] ACER ZU2 laptop keyboard
With respect to the latter, the ambitious Lassalle attempted to make common cause with the conservative Bismarck by his new book Herr Basitat-Schulze, declaring: that he "must inform Your Excellency that this work will bring about the utter destruction of Liberals and the whole Progressive bourgeoisie."[27] SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
Lassalle sought Bismarck to exert influence through the Ministry of Justice to prevent seizure of the book.[27] The book subsequently appeared without police interference but Bismarck, occupied with other matters, refused a request by Lassalle for another meeting and no further direct contacts between the pair were made.[28] HP Pavilion dv6-2133ee laptop keyboard
In Berlin, Lassalle had met a young woman, Helene von Dönniges, and during the summer of 1864 they decided to marry. She, however, was the daughter of a Bavarian diplomat then resident at Geneva, APPLE ibook g4 12.1 inch laptop keyboard
who would have nothing to do with Lassalle. Helene was imprisoned in her own room, and soon, apparently under duress, renounced Lassalle in favour of another suitor, a Wallachian count named Bajor von Racowitza. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
Lassalle sent a challenge to duel both to the lady's father and to Count von Racowitza, which was accepted by the latter. At the Carouge, a suburb of Geneva, a duel occurred on the morning of 28 August 1864. Lassalle was wounded mortally, and he died on August 31. HP Pavilion DV6-1205ee laptop keyboard
At the time of his death, Lassalle's political party had only 4,610 members and no detailed political program.[23] The Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein continued after his death, however, going on to help establish the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in 1875. ACER NSK-H321D laptop keyboard
Lassalle accepted the idea, first posited by the classical economist David Ricardo, that wage rates in the long term tended towards the minimum level necessary to sustain the life of the worker and to provide for his reproduction. ACER Aspire One D250-1Br laptop keyboard
In accord with this "Iron Law of Wages", Lassalle argued that individual measures of self-help by wage workers were destined to failure and that only producers' cooperatives established with the financial aid of the state would make economic improvement of the workers' lives possible.[32] HP Pavilion dv6-2119tx laptop keyboard
From this, it followed that the political action of the workers to capture the power of the state was paramount and the organization of trade unions to struggle for ephemeral wage improvements more or less a diversion from the primary struggle. HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Though it is true that philosophy finds diverse applications in many areas of research, a philosopher does not determine the value of an idea by the diversity of its applications alone. A substantial minority of philosophers focus their research exclusively upon the history of philosophical inquiry. Nonetheless, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
philosophers realize or invent an analysis in order to show how ideas and/or concepts can "work" productively within a set of contingent cause and effect relationships.
Just as the natural sciences are built on a persistent curiosity and healthy skepticism in regards to how we interpret what we see - SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard
never accepting any explanation as truth if that explanation cannot be supported by empirical evidence - philosophical inquiry reflects a persistent curiosity and healthy skepticism in regards to what we define as truth, empirical, evidence, and thought. HP Pavilion G7-1081NR Laptop Keyboard
The usefulness of an idea, and studying the interpretation of an idea, is situated within the historical events that gave possibility to the idea, and in the potential to study how these ideas can work to shape our lives. HP Pavilion G7-1150US Laptop Keyboard
How we think about what counts as real, affects and conditions the way that we interact and think. Philosophers often seek to identify and analyze the consequences of ideas and concepts.
The Humboldt University of Berlin (German: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin) is one of Berlin's oldestuniversities, DELL NSK-DJ210 Laptop Keyboard
founded in 1810 as the University of Berlin (Universität zu Berlin) by the liberal Prussianeducational reformer and linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt, whose university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
From 1828 it was known as the Frederick William University (Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität), and later (unofficially) also as the Universität unter den Linden after its location. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
In 2012, the Humboldt University of Berlin was one of eleven German top-universities (also known as elite universities) to win in the German Universities Excellence Initiative, a national competition for universities organized by the German Federal Government. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology and philosophy under rector Theodor Schmalz. The university has been home to many of Germany's greatest thinkers of the past two centuries, among them the subjective idealist philosopherJohann Gottlieb Fichte, the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, the absolute idealist philosopher G.W.F. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Hegel, the Romantic legal theorist Friedrich Carl von Savigny, the pessimist philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, the objective idealist philosopher Friedrich Schelling, cultural critic Walter Benjamin, and famous physicists Albert Einstein andMax Planck. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S5984 Laptop Keyboard
Founders of Marxist theory Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels attended the university, as did poet Heinrich Heine, novelist Alfred Döblin, founder ofstructuralism Ferdinand de Saussure, German unifier Otto von Bismarck, Communist Party of Germany founder Karl Liebknecht, African American Pan Africanist W. E. B. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP03 Laptop Keyboard
Du Boisand European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The university is home to 29Nobel Prize winners.
The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University. Further, it has been claimed that "the 'Humboldtian' SONY VAIO VGN-FW11S laptop keyboard
university became a model for the rest of Europe [...] with its central principle being the union of teaching and research in the work of the individual scholar or scientist."[5]
In addition to the strong anchoring of traditional subjects, such as science, law, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx laptop keyboard
philosophy, history, theology and medicine, Berlin University developed to encompass numerous new scientific disciplines. Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
With the construction of modern research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. Famous researchers, such as the chemist August Wilhelm Hofmann, the physicist Hermann von Helmholtz, the mathematicians Ernst Eduard Kummer, Leopold Kronecker, Karl Weierstrass, the physicians Johannes Peter Müller,Albrecht von Graefe, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Rudolf Virchow and Robert Koch, contributed to Berlin University's scientific fame.
During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to incorporate other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum. In 1717, HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
King Friedrich I had built aquarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the "soldier king" Friedrich Wilhelm:[disambiguation needed] "Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen" (It will be called Charité [French for charity]). By 1829 the site became Berlin University's medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, in 1934 formed the basis of the Veterinary Medicine Facility (Grundstock der Veterinärmedizinischen Fakultät). Also the LandwirHP Pavilion dv6-2159tx laptop keyboard
After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime. The rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. It was from the university's library that some 20,000 books by "degenerates" and opponents of the regime weretaken to be burned on May 10 of that year in the Opernplatz (now the Bebelplatz) for a demonstration protected by theSA that also featured a speech by Joseph Goebbels. SONY VAIO VGN-FS640FP laptop keyboard
A monument to this can now be found in the center of the square, consisting of a glass panel opening onto an underground white room with empty shelf space for 20,000 volumes and a plaque, bearing an epigraph from an 1820 work by Heinrich Heine: HP Pavilion DV7-3100 laptop keyboard
"Das war ein Vorspiel nur, dort wo man Bücher verbrennt, verbrennt man am Ende auch Menschen" ("That was only a prelude; where they burn books, they ultimately burn people").
The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (German "Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums") TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934 and numerous doctorates being withdrawn. Students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time nearly one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s1196 laptop keyboard
The Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SMAD) ordered (Befehl-Nr. 4) the opening of the university in January 1946. The SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing "newly opened" and not "re-opened" for political reasons. HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
The president of the German Central Administration for National Education (DZVV), Paul Wandel, in his address at the January 29, 1946, opening ceremony, said: "I spoke of the opening, and not of the re-opening of the university. [...] The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way. You have before you this image of the old university. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
What remains of that is nought but ruins." The teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the winter semester of 1946, the Economic and Educational Sciences Faculty had re-opened. HP Mini 110-3522tu Laptop Keyboard
The Workers and Peasants Faculty (German: Arbeiter-und-Bauern-Fakultät) (ABF), an education program aimed at young men who, due to political or racial reasons, had been disadvantaged under the Nazis, was established at the university during this time. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body and faculty. Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response. SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard
The Soviet Military Tribunal in Berlin-Lichtenberg ruled the students were involved in the formation of a "resistance movement at the University of Berlin", as well as espionage, and were sentenced to 25 years of forced labor. From 1945 to 1948, 18 other students and teachers were arrested or abducted, many gone for weeks, and some taken to the Soviet Union and executed.[citation needed] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard
In the spring of 1948, after several university students with admission irregularities were withdrawn, the opposition demanded a "free" university. Students and scholars, with support from especially the Americans, the newspaper Der Tagesspiegel, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
and the governing Mayor Ernst Reuter founded the Free University of Berlin in Dahlem (part of the American sector). The decades-long division of the city into East and West Berlin finally cemented the division into two independent universities permanently. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
After the unification of East and West Germany, the university was radically restructured and all professors had to reapply for their positions. The faculty was largely replaced with West German professors, among them the historianHeinrich August Winkler. GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard
Today, Humboldt University is a state university with a large number of students (37,145 in 2003, among them more than 4,662 foreign students) after the model of West German universities, and like its counterpart theFree University of Berlin. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
Its main building is located in the centre of Berlin at the boulevard Unter den Linden. The building was erected on order by King Frederick II for his younger brother Prince Henry of Prussia. Most institutes are located in the centre, around the main building, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
except the natural science institutes, which are located at Adlershof in the south of Berlin. Further, the university continues its tradition of a book sale at the university gates facing Bebelplatz. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
When the Royal Library proved insufficient, a new library was founded in 1831, first located in several temporary sites. In 1871–1874 a library building was constructed, following the design of architect Paul Emanuel Spieker. In 1910 the collection was relocated to the building of the Berlin State Library. SONY VGN-FE21M Laptop Keyboard
During the Weimar Period the library contained 831,934 volumes (1930) and was thus one of the leading university libraries in Germany at that time.
During the Nazi book burnings in 1933, no volumes from the university library were destroyed. Also, the loss through World War II was comparatively small. In 2003, natural science related books were outhoused to the newly founded library at theAdlershof campus, which is dedicated solely to the natural sciences. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Since the premises of the State Library had to be cleared in 2005, a new library building is about to be erected close to the main building in the center of Berlin. The "Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm-Zentrum" opened in 2009. HP Mini 110-3118cl Laptop Keyboard
In total, the university library contains about 6.5 million volumes and 9000 held magazines and journals and is one of the biggest university libraries in Germany.
The books of the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft were destroyed during the Nazi book burnings and the institute destroyed. Under the terms of the Magnus HirschfeldACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
Foundation, the government had undertaken to continue the work of the institute at the university after its founder's death. However these terms were ignored. In 2001 however the university acquired the Archive for Sexology from the Robert Koch Institute, which was founded on a large private library donated by Prof. Haeberle. Lenovo 3000 V100 0763 laptop keyboard
This has now been housed at the new Magnus Hirschfeld Center.[6]
Heine was born in Düsseldorf, Rhineland, into a Jewish family. He was called "Harry" as a child, but became "Heinrich" after his conversion to Christianity in 1825.[1] Heine's father, Samson Heine (1764–1828), ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
was a textile merchant. His mother Peira (known as "Betty"), née van Geldern (1771–1859), was the daughter of a physician. Heinrich was the eldest of the four children; his siblings were Charlotte, Gustav - who later became Baron Heine-Geldern and publisher of the Viennese newspaper Das Fremdenblatt - and Maximilian, later a physician in Saint Petersburg. Lenovo 3000 N100 0768 laptop keyboard
Düsseldorf was then a small town with a population of around 16,000. The Revolution in neighbouring France and the subsequent Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars which involved Germany meant that Düsseldorf had a complicated political history during Heine's childhood. It had been the capital of the Duchy of Jülich-Berg, SONY 148781311 laptop keyboard
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but at the time of his birth it was under French occupation.[3]Then it went to the Elector of Bavaria before being ceded to Napoleon in 1806. Napoleon turned it into the capital of the Grand Duchy of Berg, one of three French states he established in Germany. It was first ruled by Joachim Murat, then by Napoleon himself.[4] In 1815, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
on Napoleon's downfall, it became part of Prussia. Heine's formative years were thus spent under French influence. The adult Heine would always be devoted to the French for introducing the Napoleonic Code and trial by jury. He glossed over the negative aspects of French rule in Berg: the heavy taxation, conscription and the economic depression brought SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
on by the Continental Blockade (which may have ultimately contributed to Heine’s father’s bankruptcy).[5][6] Heine greatly admired Napoleon as the promoter of the revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality. SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
Heine loathed the political atmosphere in Germany after Napoleon's defeat, which was marked by the conservative policies of the Austrian chancellor Metternich, who tried to reverse the effects of the French Revolution.[7] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Heine's parents were not particularly devout Jews. When he was a young child they sent him to a Jewish school where he learned a smattering of Hebrew. Thereafter he attended Catholic schools. Here he learned French, which would be his second language, although he always spoke it with a German accent. He also acquired a lifelong love for Rhineland folklore.[8] SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard
In 1814 Heine went to a business school in Düsseldorf where he learned to read English, the commercial language of the time.[9] The most successful member of the Heine family was his uncle Salomon, who was a millionaire banker in Hamburg. In 1816 Heine moved to Hamburg to become an apprentice at Heckscher & Co, LENOVO 25-008389 laptop keyboard
his uncle Salomon's bank, but he displayed little aptitude for business. He learned to hate Hamburg with its commercial ethos but it would become one of the poles of his life alongside Paris. When he was 18, Heine almost certainly had an unrequited love for his cousin Amalie, Salomon's daughter. Whether he then transferred his affections (equally unsuccessfully) HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
to her sister Therese is unknown.[10] This period in Heine's life is not very clear, but it seems that his father Samson's business deteriorated and Samson Heine effectively became the ward of his brother Salomon.[11] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Salomon realised that his nephew had no talent for trade and it was decided that Heine should enter the law. So, in 1819, Heine went to the University of Bonn (then in Prussia). Political life in Germany was divided between conservatives and liberals. SONY VAIO VGN-NW51FB laptop keyboard
The conservatives, who were in power, wanted to restore things to the way they were before the French Revolution. They were against German unification because they felt a united Germany might fall victim to revolutionary ideas. Most German states were absolutist monarchies with a censored press. The opponents of the conservatives, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
the liberals, wanted to replace absolutism with representative, constitutional government, equality before the law and a free press. At the University of Bonn, liberal students were at war with the conservative authorities. DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
Heine was a radical liberal and one of the first things he did after his arrival was to take part in a parade which violated the Carlsbad Decrees, a series of measures introduced by Metternich to suppress liberal political activity.[12] LENOVO 25-008128 laptop keyboard
Heine was more interested in studying history and literature than law. The university had engaged the famous literary critic and thinker August Wilhelm Schlegel as a lecturer and Heine heard him talk about the Nibelungenlied Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
and Romanticism. Though he would later mock Schlegel, Heine found in him a sympathetic critic for his early verses. Heine began to acquire a reputation as a poet at Bonn. He also wrote two tragedies, Almansor and William Ratcliff, but they had little success in the theatre.[13] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
After a year at Bonn, Heine left to continue his law studies at the University of Göttingen. Heine hated the town. It was part of Hanover, ruled by the King of England, the power Heine blamed for bringing Napoleon down. Here the poet experienced an aristocratic snobbery absent elsewhere. He also hated law as the Historical School of law he had to study was used to bolster the reactionary form of government he opposed. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
Other events conspired to make Heine loathe this period of his life: he was expelled from a student fraternity for anti-Semitic reasons and he heard the news that his cousin Amalie had become engaged. When Heine challenged another student, Wiebel, to a duel (the first of ten known incidents throughout his life), HP Pavilion dv6-2151cl laptop keyboard
the authorities stepped in and Heine was suspended from the university for six months. His uncle now decided to send him to the University of Berlin.[14]
Heine arrived in Berlin in March 1821. It was the biggest, most cosmopolitan city he had ever visited (its population was about 200,000). DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The university gave Heine access to notable cultural figures as lecturers: the Sanskritist Franz Bopp and the Homer critic F.A. Wolf, who inspired Heine's lifelong love of Aristophanes. Most important was the philosopher Hegel, whose influence on Heine is hard to gauge. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
He probably gave Heine and other young students the idea that history had a meaning which could be seen as progressive.[15] Heine also made valuable acquaintances in Berlin, notably the liberal Karl August Varnhagen and his Jewish wife Rahel, who held a leading salon. ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Laptop Keyboard
Another friend was the satirist Karl Immermann, who had praised Heine's first verse collection, Gedichte, when it appeared in December 1821.[16] During his time in Berlin Heine also joined the Verein für Cultur und Wissenschaft der Juden, a society which attempted to achieve a balance between the Jewish faith and modernity. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Since Heine was not very religious in outlook he soon lost interest, but he also began to investigate Jewish history. He was particularly drawn to the Spanish Jews of the Middle Ages. In 1824 Heine began a historical novel,Der Rabbi von Bacherach, which he never managed to finish.[17]
· Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Here he began to write the poems of the cycle Die Heimkehr("The Homecoming"). He returned to Göttingen where he was again bored by the law. In September 1824 he decided to take a break and set off on a trip through the Harz mountains. On his return he started writing an account of it, Die Harzreise.[18] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
On 28 June 1825 Heine converted to Protestantism. The Prussian government had been gradually restoring discrimination against Jews. In 1822 it introduced a law excluding Jews from academic posts and Heine had ambitions for a university career. As Heine said in self-justification, his conversion was "the ticket of admission into European culture". Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
In the event, Heine's conversion, which was reluctant, never brought him any benefits in his career.[19][20]
In Hamburg one evening in January 1826 Heine met Julius Campe, who would be his chief publisher for the rest of his life. Their stormy relationship has been compared to a marriage. Campe was a liberal who published as many dissident authors as he could. He had developed various techniques for evading the authorities. Lenovo Thinkpad T420 Keyboard
The laws of the time stated that any book under 320 pages had to be submitted to censorship (the authorities thought long books would cause little trouble as they were unpopular). One way round censorship was to publish dissident works in large print to increase the number of pages beyond 320. Lenovo Thinkpad T420i Keyboard
The censorship in Hamburg was relatively lax but Campe had to worry about Prussia, the largest German state which had the largest market for books (it was estimated that one-third of the German readership was Prussian). Initially, any book which had passed the censor in a German state was able to be sold in any of the other states but in 1834 this loophole was closed. Lenovo Thinkpad T420S Keyboard
Campe was reluctant to publish uncensored books as he had bad experience of print runs being confiscated. Heine resisted all censorship. So this issue became a bone of contention between the two.[22] But the relationship between author and publisher started well: Campe published the first volume of Reisebilder ("Travel Pictures") SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
in May 1826. This volume included Die Harzreise, which marked a new style of German travel-writing, mixing Romantic descriptions of Nature with satire. Heine's Buch der Lieder followed in 1827. This was a collection of already published poems. Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
No one expected it would be one of the most popular books of German verse ever published and sales were slow to start with, picking up when composers began setting Heine's poems as Lieder.[23] For example the poem "Allnächtlich im Traume" of the Buch der Lieder was set to music by Robert Schumann as well as by Felix Mendelssohn. It contains the ironical disillusionment which is typical of Heine: SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Heine went to England to avoid what he predicted would be controversy over the publication of this work. In London he cashed a cheque from his uncle for £200 (equal to £14,660 today), much to Salomon's chagrin. Heine was unimpressed by the English: he found them commercial and prosaic and still blamed them for the defeat of Napoleon.[27] HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
On his return to Germany, Cotta, the liberal publisher of Goethe and Schiller, offered Heine a job co-editing a magazine, Politische Annalen, in Munich. Heine did not find work on the newspaper congenial, and instead tried to obtain a professorship at Munich University, with no success.[28] After a few months he took a trip to northern Italy, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
visiting Lucca, Florence and Venice, but was forced to return when he received news that his father had died. This Italian journey resulted in a series of new works: Die Reise von München nach Genua ("Journey from Munich to Genoa"),DHP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
ie Bäder von Lucca ("The Baths of Lucca") and Die Stadt Lucca ("The Town of Lucca").[29] Die Bäder von Lucca embroiled Heine in controversy. The aristocratic poet August von Platen had been annoyed by some epigrams by Immermann which Heine had included in the second volume of Reisebilder. He counter-attacked by writing a play, Die romantische Ödipus, GATEWAY 101974 laptop keyboard
which included anti-Semitic jibes about Heine. Heine was stung and responded by mocking Platen's homosexuality in Die Bäder von Lucca.[30]
In 1831 Heine left Germany for France, settling in Paris for his remaining 25 years of life. His move was prompted by the July Revolution of 1830 HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
which had made Louis-Philippe the "Citizen King" of the French. Heine shared liberal enthusiasm for the revolution, which he felt had the potential to overturn the conservative political order in Europe.[31] Heine was also attracted by the prospect of freedom from German censorship and was interested in the new French utopian political doctrine ofSaint-Simonianism. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
Saint-Simonianism preached a new social order in whichmeritocracy would replace hereditary distinctions in rank and wealth. There would also be female emancipation and an important role for artists and scientists. Heine frequented some Saint-Simonian meetings after his arrival in Paris but within a few years his enthusiasm for the ideology - and other forms of utopianism- had waned.[32][33] ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
Heine soon became a celebrity in France. Paris offered him a cultural richness unavailable in the smaller cities of Germany. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
He made many famous acquaintances (the closest were Gérard de Nerval and Hector Berlioz) but he always remained something of an outsider. He had little interest in French literature and wrote everything in German, subsequently translating it into French with the help of a collaborator.[34] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
In Paris, Heine earned money working as the French correspondent for one of Cotta's newspapers, the Allgemeine Zeitung. The first event he covered was the Salon of 1831. His articles were eventually collected in a volume entitledFranzösische Zustände ("Conditions in France").[35] DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
Heine saw himself as a mediator between Germany and France. If the two countries understood one another there would be progress. To further this aim he published De l'Allemagne ("On Germany") in French (begun 1833). In its later German version, the book is divided into two: Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland ("On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany") and Die romantische Schule ("The Romantic School").HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
Heine was deliberately attacking Madame de Staël's book De l'Allemagne (1813) which he viewed as reactionary, Romantic and obscurantist. He felt de Staël had portrayed a Germany of "poets and thinkers", dreamy, HP 6043B0034801A02 CPU FAN
religious, introverted and cut off from the revolutionary currents of the modern world. Heine thought that such an image suited the oppressive German authorities. He also had an Enlightenment view of the past, seeing it as mired in superstition and atrocities. "Religion and Philosophy in Germany" describes the replacement of traditional "spiritualist" HP 606013-001 CPU FAN
religion by a pantheism that pays attention to human material needs. According to Heine, pantheism had been repressed by Christianity and had survived in German folklore. He predicted that German thought would prove a more explosive force than the French Revolution.[36] HP 606574-001 CPU FAN
HP 606575-001 CPU FAN
Heine and his fellow radical exile in Paris, Ludwig Börne, had become the role models for a younger generation of writers who were given the name "Young Germany". They included Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube, Theodor Mundt and Ludolf Wienbarg. They were liberal, but not actively political. Nevertheless, they still fell foul of the authorities. HP 606609-001 CPU FAN
In 1835 Gutzkow published a novel, Wally die Zweiflerin ("Wally the Sceptic"), which contained criticism of the institution of marriage and some mildly erotic passages. In November of that year, the German Diet consequently banned publication of works by the Young Germans in Germany and – on Metternich's HP 608378-001 CPU FAN
insistence – Heine's name was added to their number. Heine, however, continued to comment on German politics and society from a distance. His publisher was able to find some ways of getting around the censors and he was still free, of course, to publish in France.[38][39] HP 608772-001 CPU FAN
Heine's relationship with his fellow dissident Ludwig Börne was troubled. Since Börne did not attack religion or traditional morality like Heine, the German authorities hounded him less although they still banned his books as soon as they appeared. Börne was the idol of German immigrant workers in Paris. He was also a republican, HP 610773-001 CPU FAN
while Heine was not. Heine regarded Börne, with his admiration for Robespierre, as a puritanical neo-Jacobin and remained aloof from him in Paris, which upset Börne, who began to criticise him (mostly semi-privately). In February 1837, Börne died. When Heine heard that Gutzkow was writing a biography of Börne, he began work on his own, severely critical "memorial" of the man. HP 610774-001 CPU FAN
When the book was published in 1840 it was universally disliked by the radicals and served to alienate Heine from his public. Even his enemies admitted that Börne was a man of integrity so Heine's ad hominem attacks on him were viewed as being in poor taste. Heine had made personal attacks on Börne's closest friend Jeanette Wohl so Jeannette'sHP 610777-001 CPU FAN
husband challenged Heine to a duel. It was the last Heine ever fought - he received a flesh wound in the hip. Before fighting, he decided to safeguard Mathilde's future in the event of his death by marrying her.[40] HP 622028-001 CPU FAN
Heine continued to write reports for Cotta's Allgemeine Zeitung (and, when Cotta died, for his son and successor). One event which really galvanised him was the 1840 Damascus Affair in which Jews in Damascus had been subject to blood libel and accused of murdering an old Catholic monk. HP 622029-001 CPU FAN
This led to a wave of anti-Semitic persecution. The French government, aiming at imperialism in the Middle East and not wanting to offend the Catholic party, had failed to condemn the outrage. On the other hand, the Austrian consul in Damascus had assiduously exposed the blood libel as a fraud. For Heine, this was a reversal of values: HP 622330-001 CPU FAN
reactionary Austria standing up for the Jews while revolutionary France temporised. Heine responded by dusting off and publishing his unfinished novel about the persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages, Der Rabbi von Bacherach.[41] HP 637607-001 CPU FAN
In October 1843, Karl Marx and his wife Jenny von Westphalen arrived in Paris after the Prussian government had suppressed Marx's radical newspaper. The Marx family settled in Rue Vaneau. Marx was an admirer of Heine and his early writings show Heine's influence. In December Heine met the Marxes and got on well with them. HP 646578-001 CPU FAN
He published several poems, including Die schlesischen Weber, in Marx's new journal Vorwärts ("Forwards"). Ultimately Heine's ideas of revolution through sensual emancipation and Marx's "scientific materialism" were incompatible, but both writers shared the same negativity and lack of faith in the bourgeoisie. HP 657529-001 CPU FAN
In the isolation he felt after the Börne debacle, Marx's friendship came as a relief to Heine, since he did not really like the other radicals. On the other hand, he did not share Marx's faith in the industrial proletariat and remained on the fringes of socialist circles. The Prussian government, angry at the publication of Vorwärts, HP AB0505HX-J0B CPU FAN
put pressure on France to deal with its authors and in January 1845 Marx was deported to Belgium. Heine could not be expelled from the country because he had the right of residence in France, having been born under French occupation.[44] HP AB5205HB-EBB CPU FAN
Thereafter Heine and Marx maintained a sporadic correspondence, but in time their admiration for one another faded.[45][46] Heine always had mixed feelings about communism. He believed its radicalism and materialism would destroy much of the European culture that he loved and admired. HP AB5505HX-K0B CPU FAN
In the French edition of "Lutetia" Heine wrote, one year before he died: "This confession, that the future belongs to the Communists, I made with an undertone of the greatest fear and sorrow and, oh!, this undertone by no means is a mask! Indeed, HP AB5505HX-OBB CPU FAN
with fear and terror I imagine the time, when those dark iconoclasts come to power: with their raw fists they will batter all marble images of my beloved world of art, they will ruin all those fantastic anecdotes that the poets loved so much, they will chop down my Laurel forests and plant potatoes and, oh!, HP AB7205HX-GC1 CPU FAN
the herbs chandler will use my Book of Songs to make bags for coffee and snuff for the old women of the future – oh!, I can foresee all this and I feel deeply sorry thinking of this decline threatening my poetry and the old world order - And yet, I freely confess, HP AB7205HX-GC3 CPU FAN
the same thoughts have a magical appeal upon my soul which I cannot resist .... In my chest there are two voices in their favour which cannot be silenced .... because the first one is that of logic ... and as I cannot object to the premise "that all people have the right to eat", HP AB7805HX-L03 CPU FAN
I must defer to all the conclusions....The second of the two compelling voices, of which I am talking, is even more powerful than the first, because it is the voice of hatred, the hatred I dedicate to this common enemy that constitutes the most distinctive contrast to communism and that will oppose the angry giant already at the first instance –HP CWTT8 CPU FAN
I am talking about the party of the so-called advocates of nationality in Germany, about those false patriots whose love for the fatherland only exists in the shape of imbecile distaste of foreign countries and neighbouring peoples and who daily pour their bile especially on France".[47] HP DFS450805M10T CPU FAN
In October–December 1843 Heine made a journey to Hamburg to see his aged mother and to patch things up with Campe with whom he had had a quarrel. He was reconciled with the publisher who agreed to provide Mathilde with an annuity for the rest of her life after Heine's death. Heine repeated the trip with his wife in July–October 1844 to HP DFS531205HC0T CPU FAN
see Uncle Salomon, but this time things did not go so well. It was the last time Heine would ever leave France.[48] At the time, Heine was working on two linked but antithetical poems with Shakespearean titles: Deutschland: Ein Wintermärchen ("Germany. A Winter's Tale") and Atta Troll: Ein Sommernachtstraum ("Atta Troll: A Midsummer Night's Dream").HP DFS551305MC0T CPU FAN
· The former is based on his journey to Germany in late 1843 and outdoes the radical poets in its satirical attacks on the political situation in the country.[49] Atta Troll (actually begun in 1841 after a trip to the Pyrenees) mocks the literary failings Heine saw in the radical poets, particularly Freiligrath. It tells the story of the hunt for a runaway bear, Atta Troll, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboardwho symbolises many of the attitudes Heine despised, including a simple-minded egalitarianism and a religious view which makes God in the believer's image (Atta Troll conceives God as an enormous, heavenly polar bear). Atta Troll's cubs embody the nationalistic views Heine loathed.[50] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Atta Troll was not published until 1847, but Deutschland appeared in 1844 as part of a collection Neue Gedichte ("New Poems"), which gathered all the verse Heine had written since 1831.[51] In the same year Uncle Salomon died. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
This put a stop to Heine's annual subsidy of 4,800 francs. Salomon left Heine and his brothers 8,000 francs each in his will. Heine's cousin Carl, the inheritor of Salomon's business, offered to pay him 2,000 francs a year at his discretion. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
Heine was furious; he had expected much more from the will and his campaign to make Carl revise its terms occupied him for the next two years.[52]
In 1844, Heine wrote series of musical feuilletons over several different music seasons discussing the music of the day. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
However, Heine was not always honorable in his musical criticism. In April 1844 he wrote to Liszt suggesting that he might like to look at a newspaper review he had written of Liszt's performance before his concert; he indicated that that it contained comments Liszt would not like. Liszt took this as an attempt to extort money for a positive review and did not meet Heine. Heine's review subsequently appeared on April 25Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
in Musikalische Berichte aus Paris and attributed Liszt's success to lavish expenditures on bouquets and to the wild behaviour of his hysterical female "fans." Liszt then broke relations with Heine. Liszt was not the only musician to be blackmailed by Heine for the nonpayment of "appreciation money." Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
Meyerbeer had both lent and given money to Heine, but after refusing to hand over a further 500 francs was repaid by being dubbed "a music corrupter" in Heine's poem Die Menge tut es.[53] HP F787 CPU FAN
In May 1848, Heine, who had not been well, suddenly fell paralyzed and had to be confined to bed. He would not leave what he called his "mattress-grave" (Matratzengruft) until his death eight years later. He also experienced difficulties with his eyes.[54] It had been suggested that he suffered from multiple sclerosis or syphilis, HP F9C5 CPU FAN
although in 1997 it was confirmed through an analysis of the poet's hair that he had suffered from chronic lead poisoning.[55] He bore his sufferings stoically and he won much public sympathy for his plight.[56] His illness meant he paid less attention than he might otherwise have done to the revolutions which broke out in France and Germany in 1848. HP GB0507PGV1-A CPU FAN
He was sceptical about the Frankfurt Assembly and continued to attack the King of Prussia. When the revolution collapsed, Heine resumed his oppositional stance. At first he had some hope Louis Napoleon might be a good leader in France but he soon began to share the opinion of Marx towards him as the new emperor began to crack down on liberalism and socialism.[57] HP GC055515VH-A CPU FAN
In 1848 Heine also returned to religious faith. In fact, he had never claimed to be an atheist. Nevertheless, he remained sceptical of organised religion.[58]
He continued to work from his sickbed: on the collections of poems Romanzero and Gedichte. 1853 und 1854, on the journalism collected in Lutezia, and on his unfinished memoirs.[59] HP GC057015VH-A CPU FAN
During these final years Heine had a love affair with the young Camille Selden, who visited him regularly.[60] He died on 17 February 1856 and was interred in the ParisCimetière de Montmartre. His wife Mathilde survived him, dying in 1883. The couple had no children.[61] HP GC057514VH-A CPU FAN
Among the thousands of books burned on Berlin's Opernplatz in 1933, following the Nazi raid on theInstitut für Sexualwissenschaft, were works by Heinrich Heine. To commemorate the terrible event, one of the most famous lines of Heine's 1821 play Almansor was engraved in the ground at the site: HP KDB0505HB CPU FAN
"Das war ein Vorspiel nur, dort wo man Bücher verbrennt, verbrennt man auch am Ende Menschen." ("That was but a prelude; where they burn books, they will ultimately burn people as well.") HP KDB05605HB CPU FAN
In 1834, 99 years before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party seized power in Germany, Heine wrote in his work "The History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany":
"Christianity - and that is its greatest merit - has somewhat mitigated that brutal Germanic love of war, but it could not destroy it. HP KSB0605HB CPU FAN
Should that subduing talisman, the cross, be shattered, the frenzied madness of the ancient warriors, that insane Berserk rage of which Nordic bards have spoken and sung so often, will once more burst into flame. HP KSB06105HA CPU FAN
Then the ancient stony gods will rise from the forgotten debris and rub the dust of a thousand years from their eyes, and finally Thor with his giant hammer will jump up and smash the Gothic cathedrals. (...)HP MCF-811AM05 CPU FAN
"Do not smile at my advice -- the advice of a dreamer who warns you against Kantians, Fichteans, and philosophers of nature. Do not smile at the visionary who anticipates the same revolution in the realm of the visible as has taken place in the spiritual. Thought precedes action as lightning precedes thunder. German thunder is of true Germanic character; it is not very nimble, HP MCF-W13BM05 CPU FAN
but rumbles along ponderously. Yet, it will come and when you hear a crashing such as never before has been heard in the world's history, then you know that the German thunderbolt has fallen at last. At that uproar the eagles of the air will drop dead, and lions in the remotest deserts of Africa will hide in their royal dens. HP 540 CPU FAN
A play will be performed in Germany which will make the French Revolution look like an innocent idyll."
In the 1890s, amidst a flowering of affection for Heine leading up to the centennial of his birth, plans were enacted to honor Heine with a memorial; HP 550 CPU FAN
these were strongly supported by one of Heine's greatest admirers, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria. The empress commissioned a statue from the sculptor Louis Hasselriis. Another memorial, a sculpted fountain, was commissioned for Düsseldorf. HP 6445B Series CPU FAN
While at first the plan met with enthusiasm, the concept was gradually bogged down in anti-Semitic, nationalist, and religious criticism; by the time the fountain was finished, there was no place to put it. Through the intervention of German American activists, HP 6520s CPU FAN
the memorial was ultimately transplanted into The Bronx. Known in English as the Lorelei Fountain, Germans refer to it as the Heinrich Heine Memorial.[64] Also, after years of controversy, the University of Düsseldorf was named Heinrich Heine University. HP 6545B Series CPU FAN
Today the city honours its poet with a boulevard (Heinrich-Heine-Allee) and a modern monument. A Heine statue, originally located near Empress Elisabeth's palace in Corfu, was later rejected by Hamburg, but eventually found a home inToulon.[65] HP 6720 CPU FAN
In Israel, the attitude to Heine has long been the subject of debate between secularists, who number him among the most prominent figures of Jewish history, and the religious who consider his conversion to Christianity to be an unforgivable act of betrayal. HP 6820s CPU FAN
Due to such debates, the city of Tel-Aviv delayed naming a street for Heine, and the street finally chosen to bear his name is located in a rather desolate industrial zone rather than in the vicinity ofTel-Aviv University, suggested by some public figures as the appropriate location. HP EliteBook 6930P Series CPU FAN
Ha'ir (a left-leaning Tel-Aviv magazine) sarcastically suggested that "The Exiling of Heine Street" symbolically re-enacted the course of Heine's own life. Since then, a street in the Yemin Moshe neighborhood of Jerusalem and a community center in Haifa have been named after Heine. A Heine Appreciation Society is active in Israel, HP EliteBook 8530 Series CPU FAN
led by prominent political figures from both the left and right camps. His quote about burning books is prominently displayed in the Yad Vashem Holocaust museum in Jerusalem. (It is also displayed in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). HP EliteBook 8530p Series CPU FAN
Russia was dependent on imports for both the domestic economy and the supply of her military forces, and the blockade seriously undermined the Russian economy. Raiding by allied British and French fleets destroyed forts on the Finnish coast including the newly constructed Bomarsund on the Åland Islands which was raided on 3 July through 16 July 1854,[35] and Fort Slava. HP EliteBook 8530w Series CPU FAN
Other such attacks were not so successful, and the poorly planned attempts to take Hanko,[36]Ekenäs, Kokkola, and Turku were repulsed.
The burning of tar warehouses and ships in Oulu and Raahe led to international criticism and, in Britain, MP Thomas Gibson demanded in the House of Commons that the First Lord of the Admiralty explain "a system which carried on a great war by plundering and destroying the property of defenceless villagers".HP Envy 13 Series CPU FAN
In 1855 the Western Allied Baltic Fleet tried to destroy heavily defended Russian dockyards at Sveaborg outsideHelsinki. More than 1,000 enemy guns tested the strength of the fortress for two days. Despite the shelling, the sailors of the 120-gun ship Rossiya, led by Captain Viktor Poplonsky, defended the entrance to the harbor. HP Envy 13-1000 CPU FAN
The Allies fired over twenty thousand shells but were unable to defeat the Russian batteries. A massive new fleet of more than 350 gunboats and mortar vessels was prepared, but before the attack was launched, the war ended. HP Envy 13-1001TX CPU FAN
When the Crimean War broke out, many Greeks felt that it was an opportunity to regain Ottoman-controlled Greek territory to add to the recently liberated territory of the independent Kingdom of Greece. The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) was still fresh in people's minds, as well as the Russian intervention that had helped secure Greek independence. HP Envy 13-1002TX CPU FAN
Just before the Greek War of Independence a leader of Filiki Eteria, Alexander Ypsilantis, and his brother Demetrios Ypsilantis had led Russian troops into Moldavia and Wallachia and coordinated the preparations for uprisings throughout Ottoman-occupied Greece which they later led. HP Envy 13-1003XX CPU FAN
Moreover, Greeks had always considered Orthodox Christian Russia as an ally and viewed the Crimean War as a grave injustice against Russia and any support of the Ottoman Empire a grave threat to Greece's recent independence.[citation needed]
HP Envy 13-1004TX CPU FAN
[41] A revolt also broke out in Crete, with support from individuals and groups within independent Greece and Constantinople. However, all Greek revolts in the Turkish provinces were soon suppressed. A small Greek volunteer force under Colonel Panos Koronaios went to Russia and fought during the Siege of Sevastopol. HP Envy 13-1005TX CPU FAN
However, more Greek nationals fought in the Crimean War with the "Greek Battalion of Balaklava" which had been in the ranks of the Russian army since the first Russo-Turkish war (1768–1774). HP Envy 13-1006TX CPU FAN
Dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war was growing with the public in Britain and in other countries, aggravated by reports of fiascos, especially the humiliating defeat of the Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava. In parliament, Tories demanded an accounting of all soldiers, cHP Envy 13-1007EV CPU FAN
avalry and sailors sent to the Crimea and accurate figures as to the number of casualties that had been sustained by all British armed forces in the Crimea; they were especially concerned with the Battle of Balaclava. HP Envy 13-1007LA CPU FAN
When Parliament passed a bill to investigate by the vote of 305 to 148, Aberdeen said he had lost a vote of no confidence and resigned as prime minister on 30 January 1855.[42] The veteran former Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston formed a Whig government with backing from the Irish MPs.[43] HP Envy 13-1007TX CPU FAN
Peace negotiations at the Congress of Paris resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 30 March 1856. In compliance with art. III Russia restored to the Ottoman Empire the city and citadel of Kars in common with "all other parts of the Ottoman territory of which the Russian troop were in possession. HP Envy 13-1008TX CPU FAN
" By art. IV Britain, France, Sardinia and Turkey restored to Russia "the towns and ports of Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamish, Eupatoria, Kerch, Jenikale, Kinburn, as well as all other territories occupied by the allied troops." In conformity with art. XI and XIII the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coast. HP Envy 13-1010ER CPU FAN
The Black Sea clauses weakened Russia, and it no longer posed a naval threat to the Ottomans. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were nominally returned to the Ottoman Empire; in practice they became independent. The Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.[9]:432–33HP Envy 13-1015ER CPU FAN
The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. While Prussia and several other German states united to form a powerful German Empire, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon III, was deposed to permit the formation of a Third French Republic. During his reign, Napoleon III, eager for the support of Great Britain, HP Envy 13-1030CA CPU FAN
had opposed Russia over the Eastern Question. Russian interference in the Ottoman Empire, however, did not in any significant manner threaten the interests of France. Thus, France abandoned its opposition to Russia after the establishment of a republic. Encouraged by the decision of the French and supported by the German minister Otto von Bismarck, HP Envy 13-1030NR CPU FAN
Russia renounced the Black Sea clauses of the treaty agreed to in 1856. As Great Britain alone could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again established a fleet in the Black Sea.
Although it was Russia that was punished by the Paris Treaty, in the long run it was Austria that would lose the most from the Crimean War despite having barely taken part in the war.[9]:433HP Envy 13-1050EA CPU FAN
Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war,[9]:433 which contributed to its defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War[9]:433 and its loss of influence in most German-speaking lands. HP Envy 13-1050EF CPU FAN
With France, now hostile to Germany, allied with Russia, and Russia competing with the newly renamed Austro-Hungarian Empire for an increased role in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, the foundations were in place for creating the diplomatic alliances that would lead to World War I. HP Envy 13-1050EG CPU FAN
Notwithstanding the guarantees to preserve Ottoman territories specified in the Treaty of Paris, Russia, exploiting nationalist unrest in the Ottoman states in the Balkans and seeking to regain lost prestige, once again declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877. In this later Russo-Turkish Warthe states of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria achieved their autonomy from direct Ottoman rule. HP Envy 13-1050ES CPU FAN
The Crimean War marked the ascendancy of France to the position of pre-eminent power on the Continent[9]:411 and the beginning of a decline for Tsarist Russia. Thus, the Crimean War represented one of the main causes of the demise of the Concert of Europe, the balance of power that had dominated Europe since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and which had included France, Russia, Austria and Britain. HP Envy 13-1099EO CPU FAN
The Crimean War was notorious for the military and logistical immaturity of the British army. However, it highlighted the work of women who served as army nurses. War correspondents for newspapers reported the scandalous HP Envy 13-1099XL CPU FAN
treatment of wounded soldiers in the desperate winter that followed and prompted the work of Florence Nightingale, Mary Seacole,Frances Margaret Taylor and others and led to the introduction of modern nursing methods. HP Envy 13-1100 CPU FAN
The Crimean War also saw the first tactical use of railways and other modern inventions such as the electric telegraph, with the first "live" war reporting to The Times by William Howard Russell. Some credit Russell with prompting the resignation of the sitting British government through his reporting of the lacklustre HP Envy 13-1940EZ CPU FAN
shape of the British forces deployed to the Crimea. Additionally, the telegraph reduced the independence of British overseas possessions from their commanders in London due to such rapid communications. Newspaper readership informed public opinion in the United Kingdom and France as never before.[45] It was the first European war to be photographed. HP Envy 13t-1000 CPU FAN
The war also employed modern military tactics, such as trenches and blind artillery fire. The use of the Minié ball for shot, coupled with the rifling of barrels, greatly increased Allied rifle range and damage. HP Envy 14 Series CPU FAN
The British Army system of sale of commissions came under great scrutiny during the war, especially in connection with the Battle of Balaclava, which saw the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade. This scrutiny eventually led to the abolition of the sale of commissions. HP Envy 14-1000wx CPU FAN
The Crimean War was a contributing factor in the Russian abolition of serfdom in 1861: Tsar Alexander II (Nicholas I's son and successor) saw the military defeat of the Russian serf-army by free troops from Britain and France as proof of the need for emancipation.[46] HP Envy 14-1001tx CPU FAN
The Crimean War also led to the eventual realisation by the Russian government of its technological inferiority, in military practices as well as weapons.[47] HP Envy 14-1000xx CPU FAN
Russia had incurred so large a war debt from the Crimean War that Alexander II, realising the difficulty of defending Alaska, decided to sell it to a third party, the United States, in 1867. (No valuable minerals, let alone gold or oil, were discovered in Alaska until 1880, thirteen years after the sale.) HP Envy 14-1002tx CPU FAN
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Ferdinand Lassalle was born on 11 April 1825 in Breslau (Wrocław), Silesia. Ferdinand's father was a silk merchant and intended his son for a business career, sending him to the commercial school at Leipzig.[1] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
However, Lassalle soon transferred to university, studying first in the University of Breslauand later at the University of Berlin.[1] There Lassalle studied philology and philosophy and became an devotee of the philosophical system of Georg Hegel. DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle passed his university examinations with distinction in 1845 and thereafter traveled to Paris to write a book on Heraclitus.[1] HP Mini 210-2004sa Laptop Keyboard
There Lassalle met the poet Heinrich Heine, who wrote of his intense young friend in 1846: "I have found in no one so much passion and clearness of intellect united in action. You have good right to be audacious – we others only usurp this divine right, this heavenly privilege."[2] HP 441426-001 Laptop Keyboard
Back in Berlin to work on his book, Lassalle soon found himself ceasing his project in favor of a different mission. Lassalle met Countess Sophie vonHatzfeldt, a woman in her early 40s who had been separated from her husband for many years, and had ongoing difficulties with him regarding an equitable division of property. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle volunteered himself to the countess's cause, an offer which was accepted readily.[3] Lassalle first challenged the nobleman to a duel, an offer which was rejected immediately.[3] DELL Inspiron 1435 Laptop Keyboard
An extensive legal case ensued in which Lassalle represented Countess von Hatzfeldt's interests, performed in 36 courtrooms during the period of 8 years.[4] Ultimately, a compromise was negotiated, bringing the countess a substantial fortune, from which she paid Lassalle an annual income of 5000 thalers (about £750) for the rest of his life.[5] HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle was a committed republican from an early age and during the German Revolutions of 1848 he spoke at public meetings for the revolutionary-democratic cause and urged the citizens of Düsseldorf to prepare themselves COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
for armed resistance to the November decision of the Prussian government to dissolve the National Assembly.[6] Lassalle was subsequently arrested in conjunction with this activity and charged with inciting armed opposition to the state.[7] HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Laptop Keyboard
While Lassalle was ultimately acquitted of this serious charge, he was kept in prison until he could be tried on a lesser charge of inciting resistance against public officials.[8] Lassalle was ultimately convicted of this subsidiary charge, for which the 23-year old served a sentence of six months in prison.[8] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Banned from residence in Berlin in the aftermath of his conviction, Lassalle began residence in the Rhineland, where he continued to pursue the lawsuit of the Countess von Hatzfeldt (settled in 1854) and finished his work on the philosophy of Heraclitus, which was completed in 1857 and published in two volumes the next year.[9] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
Reaction to the book was mixed, with some declaring the work seminal while others considered it as a recitation of Hegelian axioms.[10] Even the book's detractors admired the scope of the work, however, and the publication gave Lassalle lasting cachet among the German intelligentsia.[10] HP 599572-001 Laptop Keyboard
During this interval Lassalle was not active politically, although he retained an interest in labour affairs. Instead his interests changed again, abandoning legal practice and philosophy in favor of drama, authoring a play called "Franz von Sickingen, a Historical Tragedy."[11] Sent in anonymously the Royal Theatre, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
the play was rejected by a manager, causing Lassalle to publish it by his own name in 1859.[11] The work was characterized by Edward Bernstein, an early and sympathetic biographer, as awkward and prone to excessive oratory – unsuited for the stage despite several effective scenes.[11] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Lasalle longed to reside in Berlin and in 1859 he surreptitiously made his return, disguised as a wagon driver.[12] Lassalle appealed to his friend the aging scholar Alexander von Humboldt to intercede with the king on his behalf to formally permit his return.[12] This was successfully accomplished and Lassalle was again officially allowed to reside in the Prussian capital.[12] HP G42-392TX Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle avoided revolutionary activity for several years thereafter, seeking to avoid official repercussions.[12] Instead Lassalle next became political commentator in writing a short work on the war in Italy in which he warned Prussia against rushing to the aid of the Austrian Empire in its war withFrance. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle followed this with a hefty work on legal theory, a two volume treatise published in 1861 entitled Das System der erworbenen Rechte (The System of Acquired Rights).[13] In this book Lassalle sought, in the words of Edward Bernstein, "to establish a legal and scientific principle which shall once for all determine under what circumstances, DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
and how far laws may be retroactive without violating the idea of right itself" – that is, determining the circumstances under which laws may be made retroactive when they come into conflict with previously established laws.[14] HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
In the 1850s and '60s, Karl Marx was in regular contact with Lassalle. Their relationship was superficially cordial, and Marx asked for a loan of £30.[15]Yet in letters to Friedrich Engels, Marx made disparaging and racist comments about Lassalle, speculating that his dark complexion and coarse hair were evidence that "Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E125 laptop keyboard
he is descendant from the negroes who joined in the flight of Moses from Egypt (unless his mother or grandmother on the father's side was crossed with a nigger)" and declaring that "the importunity of the fellow is also niggerlike."[16] SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
Only briefly engaged in the revolutionary struggle during 1848, Lassalle reentered public politics in 1862, motivated by aconstitutional struggle in Prussia.[13] King Wilhelm I, who became king on 2 January 1861, had repeatedly clashed with the liberal Chamber of Deputies, resulting in multiple dissolutions of the Diet.[13] HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
As a recognized legal scholar, Lassalle was asked to make public addresses dealing with the nature of the constitution and its relationship to the social forces within society.[17]
In a published speech delivered in Berlin on 12 April 1862, entitled ‘Concerning the particular Connection between the Present Period of History and the Idea of the Working Class’, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
later becoming known as the Workers' Program. Lassalle assigned primacy in society to the press over the state itself in the aftermath of the 1848 revolution – an assertion regarded as dangerous by the Prussian censorship.[18] DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
The entire print run of 3000 copies of the pamphlet of Lassalle's speech was seized by the authorities, who issued a legal charge against Lassalle for allegedly endangering the public peace.[18] HP G42-475TU laptop keyboard
Lassalle was brought to trial to answer this accusation in Berlin on 16 January 1863.[18] After a widely publicized trial at which he presented his own defense, Lassalle was convicted of the charges levied against him, sentenced to four months' imprisonment and assessed the costs of the trial.[19] This term was later replaced by a fine upon appeal.[19] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
Lassalle soon began a new career as a political agitator, traveling around Germany, giving speeches and writing pamphlets, in an attempt to organise and rouse the working class. Lassalle considered Fichte as "one of the mightiest thinkers of all peoples and ages" and in a speech given in May 1862, HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
he praised Fichte's Addresses to the German Nation "which constitute one of the mightiest monuments of fame which our people possesses, and which, in depth and power, far surpass everything of this sort which has been handed down to us from the literature of all time and peoples".[20] SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
Although Lassalle was a member of the Communist League, his politics were strongly opposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; indeed Marx's essay Critique of the Gotha Program is written in part as a reaction to Lassalle's conception of the socialist state. Marx and Engels thought that Lassalle was not a true Communist as he directly influenced Bismarck's government (albeit in secret) in favor of universal manhood suffrage, among other issues. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
In February 1864 Lassalle wrote to Engels, claiming that he although had been a republican since infancy "I have never found anything as ridiculous, corrupt, and in the long run impossible as constitutionalism...I have come to the conviction that nothing could have a greater future or a more beneficent role than the monarchy, SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard
if it could only make up its mind to become a social monarchy. In that case I would passionately bear its banner, and the constitutional theories would be quickly enough thrown into the lumber room".[21] Élie Halévy would later write on this situation: HP 403809-001 Laptop Keyboard
Lassalle was the first man in Germany, the first in Europe, who succeeded in organising a party of socialist action. Yet he viewed the emerging bourgeois parties as more inimical to the working class than the aristocracy and hence he supported universal manhood suffrage at a time when the liberals preferred a limited, DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
property-based suffrage which excluded the working class and enhanced the middle classes. This created a strange alliance between Lassalle and Bismarck. When in 1866 Bismarck founded the Confederation of Northern Germany on a basis of universal suffrage, TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
he was acting on advice which came directly from Lassalle. And I am convinced that after 1878, when he began to practise "State Socialism" and "Christian Socialism" and "Monarchial Socialism," he had not forgotten what he had learnt from the socialist leader."[22] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
As a result, when Lassalle initiated the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein (General German Workers' Association, ADAV) on 23 May 1863, Marx's devotees in Germany did not join it. Lassalle was the first president of this first German labour party, retaining the job from its formation on 23 May 1863 until his death on 31 August 1864. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The only stated purpose of this organization was the winning of equal, universal, and direct suffrage by peaceful and legal means.[23]
On 11 May 1863 Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia, initiated written correspondence with Lassalle. The Bismarck-Lassalle correspondence was discovered only in 1927 and is therefore not mentioned by earlier biographical works.[24] HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
A hand-written note was delivered to Lassalle personally, and the pair met face-to-face within 48 hours thereafter.[24] This proved to be the first of several such meetings, during which Bismarck and Lassalle freely exchanged views on matters of common concern.
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I saw him, and since my first conversation I have never regretted doing so. ...I saw him perhaps three or four times altogether. There was never the possibility of our talks taking the form of political negotiations. What could Lassalle have offered me? He had nothing behind him.... DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
But he attracted me as an individual. He was one of the most intelligent and likable men I had ever come across. He was very ambitious and by no means a republican. He was very much a nationalist and a monarchist. His ideal was the German Empire, TOSHIBA Satellite U205 laptop keyboard
and here was our point of contact. As I have said he was ambitious, on a large scale, and there is perhaps room for doubt as to whether, in his eyes, the German Empire ultimately entailed the Hohenzollern or the Lassalle dynasty.... Our talks lasted for hours and I was always sorry when they came to an end.[25] TOSHIBA Portege M500 laptop keyboard
Lassalle made multiple secret appeals from 1864 to Bismarck – later the main proponent of the Anti-Socialist Laws – both in favor of the immediate implementation of progressive policies such as universal suffrage as well as for the protection of his own publications from police seizure.[26] ACER ZU2 laptop keyboard
With respect to the latter, the ambitious Lassalle attempted to make common cause with the conservative Bismarck by his new book Herr Basitat-Schulze, declaring: that he "must inform Your Excellency that this work will bring about the utter destruction of Liberals and the whole Progressive bourgeoisie."[27] SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
Lassalle sought Bismarck to exert influence through the Ministry of Justice to prevent seizure of the book.[27] The book subsequently appeared without police interference but Bismarck, occupied with other matters, refused a request by Lassalle for another meeting and no further direct contacts between the pair were made.[28] HP Pavilion dv6-2133ee laptop keyboard
In Berlin, Lassalle had met a young woman, Helene von Dönniges, and during the summer of 1864 they decided to marry. She, however, was the daughter of a Bavarian diplomat then resident at Geneva, APPLE ibook g4 12.1 inch laptop keyboard
who would have nothing to do with Lassalle. Helene was imprisoned in her own room, and soon, apparently under duress, renounced Lassalle in favour of another suitor, a Wallachian count named Bajor von Racowitza. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
Lassalle sent a challenge to duel both to the lady's father and to Count von Racowitza, which was accepted by the latter. At the Carouge, a suburb of Geneva, a duel occurred on the morning of 28 August 1864. Lassalle was wounded mortally, and he died on August 31. HP Pavilion DV6-1205ee laptop keyboard
At the time of his death, Lassalle's political party had only 4,610 members and no detailed political program.[23] The Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein continued after his death, however, going on to help establish the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in 1875. ACER NSK-H321D laptop keyboard
Lassalle accepted the idea, first posited by the classical economist David Ricardo, that wage rates in the long term tended towards the minimum level necessary to sustain the life of the worker and to provide for his reproduction. ACER Aspire One D250-1Br laptop keyboard
In accord with this "Iron Law of Wages", Lassalle argued that individual measures of self-help by wage workers were destined to failure and that only producers' cooperatives established with the financial aid of the state would make economic improvement of the workers' lives possible.[32] HP Pavilion dv6-2119tx laptop keyboard
From this, it followed that the political action of the workers to capture the power of the state was paramount and the organization of trade unions to struggle for ephemeral wage improvements more or less a diversion from the primary struggle. HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Though it is true that philosophy finds diverse applications in many areas of research, a philosopher does not determine the value of an idea by the diversity of its applications alone. A substantial minority of philosophers focus their research exclusively upon the history of philosophical inquiry. Nonetheless, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
philosophers realize or invent an analysis in order to show how ideas and/or concepts can "work" productively within a set of contingent cause and effect relationships.
Just as the natural sciences are built on a persistent curiosity and healthy skepticism in regards to how we interpret what we see - SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard
never accepting any explanation as truth if that explanation cannot be supported by empirical evidence - philosophical inquiry reflects a persistent curiosity and healthy skepticism in regards to what we define as truth, empirical, evidence, and thought. HP Pavilion G7-1081NR Laptop Keyboard
The usefulness of an idea, and studying the interpretation of an idea, is situated within the historical events that gave possibility to the idea, and in the potential to study how these ideas can work to shape our lives. HP Pavilion G7-1150US Laptop Keyboard
How we think about what counts as real, affects and conditions the way that we interact and think. Philosophers often seek to identify and analyze the consequences of ideas and concepts.
The Humboldt University of Berlin (German: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin) is one of Berlin's oldestuniversities, DELL NSK-DJ210 Laptop Keyboard
founded in 1810 as the University of Berlin (Universität zu Berlin) by the liberal Prussianeducational reformer and linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt, whose university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
From 1828 it was known as the Frederick William University (Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität), and later (unofficially) also as the Universität unter den Linden after its location. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
In 2012, the Humboldt University of Berlin was one of eleven German top-universities (also known as elite universities) to win in the German Universities Excellence Initiative, a national competition for universities organized by the German Federal Government. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology and philosophy under rector Theodor Schmalz. The university has been home to many of Germany's greatest thinkers of the past two centuries, among them the subjective idealist philosopherJohann Gottlieb Fichte, the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, the absolute idealist philosopher G.W.F. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Hegel, the Romantic legal theorist Friedrich Carl von Savigny, the pessimist philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, the objective idealist philosopher Friedrich Schelling, cultural critic Walter Benjamin, and famous physicists Albert Einstein andMax Planck. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S5984 Laptop Keyboard
Founders of Marxist theory Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels attended the university, as did poet Heinrich Heine, novelist Alfred Döblin, founder ofstructuralism Ferdinand de Saussure, German unifier Otto von Bismarck, Communist Party of Germany founder Karl Liebknecht, African American Pan Africanist W. E. B. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP03 Laptop Keyboard
Du Boisand European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The university is home to 29Nobel Prize winners.
The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University. Further, it has been claimed that "the 'Humboldtian' SONY VAIO VGN-FW11S laptop keyboard
university became a model for the rest of Europe [...] with its central principle being the union of teaching and research in the work of the individual scholar or scientist."[5]
In addition to the strong anchoring of traditional subjects, such as science, law, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx laptop keyboard
philosophy, history, theology and medicine, Berlin University developed to encompass numerous new scientific disciplines. Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
With the construction of modern research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. Famous researchers, such as the chemist August Wilhelm Hofmann, the physicist Hermann von Helmholtz, the mathematicians Ernst Eduard Kummer, Leopold Kronecker, Karl Weierstrass, the physicians Johannes Peter Müller,Albrecht von Graefe, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Rudolf Virchow and Robert Koch, contributed to Berlin University's scientific fame.
During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to incorporate other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum. In 1717, HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
King Friedrich I had built aquarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the "soldier king" Friedrich Wilhelm:[disambiguation needed] "Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen" (It will be called Charité [French for charity]). By 1829 the site became Berlin University's medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, in 1934 formed the basis of the Veterinary Medicine Facility (Grundstock der Veterinärmedizinischen Fakultät). Also the LandwirHP Pavilion dv6-2159tx laptop keyboard
After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime. The rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. It was from the university's library that some 20,000 books by "degenerates" and opponents of the regime weretaken to be burned on May 10 of that year in the Opernplatz (now the Bebelplatz) for a demonstration protected by theSA that also featured a speech by Joseph Goebbels. SONY VAIO VGN-FS640FP laptop keyboard
A monument to this can now be found in the center of the square, consisting of a glass panel opening onto an underground white room with empty shelf space for 20,000 volumes and a plaque, bearing an epigraph from an 1820 work by Heinrich Heine: HP Pavilion DV7-3100 laptop keyboard
"Das war ein Vorspiel nur, dort wo man Bücher verbrennt, verbrennt man am Ende auch Menschen" ("That was only a prelude; where they burn books, they ultimately burn people").
The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (German "Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums") TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934 and numerous doctorates being withdrawn. Students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time nearly one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s1196 laptop keyboard
The Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SMAD) ordered (Befehl-Nr. 4) the opening of the university in January 1946. The SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing "newly opened" and not "re-opened" for political reasons. HP Pavilion G7-1077NR laptop keyboard
The president of the German Central Administration for National Education (DZVV), Paul Wandel, in his address at the January 29, 1946, opening ceremony, said: "I spoke of the opening, and not of the re-opening of the university. [...] The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way. You have before you this image of the old university. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
What remains of that is nought but ruins." The teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the winter semester of 1946, the Economic and Educational Sciences Faculty had re-opened. HP Mini 110-3522tu Laptop Keyboard
The Workers and Peasants Faculty (German: Arbeiter-und-Bauern-Fakultät) (ABF), an education program aimed at young men who, due to political or racial reasons, had been disadvantaged under the Nazis, was established at the university during this time. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body and faculty. Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response. SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard
The Soviet Military Tribunal in Berlin-Lichtenberg ruled the students were involved in the formation of a "resistance movement at the University of Berlin", as well as espionage, and were sentenced to 25 years of forced labor. From 1945 to 1948, 18 other students and teachers were arrested or abducted, many gone for weeks, and some taken to the Soviet Union and executed.[citation needed] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard
In the spring of 1948, after several university students with admission irregularities were withdrawn, the opposition demanded a "free" university. Students and scholars, with support from especially the Americans, the newspaper Der Tagesspiegel, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
and the governing Mayor Ernst Reuter founded the Free University of Berlin in Dahlem (part of the American sector). The decades-long division of the city into East and West Berlin finally cemented the division into two independent universities permanently. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
After the unification of East and West Germany, the university was radically restructured and all professors had to reapply for their positions. The faculty was largely replaced with West German professors, among them the historianHeinrich August Winkler. GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard
Today, Humboldt University is a state university with a large number of students (37,145 in 2003, among them more than 4,662 foreign students) after the model of West German universities, and like its counterpart theFree University of Berlin. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
Its main building is located in the centre of Berlin at the boulevard Unter den Linden. The building was erected on order by King Frederick II for his younger brother Prince Henry of Prussia. Most institutes are located in the centre, around the main building, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
except the natural science institutes, which are located at Adlershof in the south of Berlin. Further, the university continues its tradition of a book sale at the university gates facing Bebelplatz. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
When the Royal Library proved insufficient, a new library was founded in 1831, first located in several temporary sites. In 1871–1874 a library building was constructed, following the design of architect Paul Emanuel Spieker. In 1910 the collection was relocated to the building of the Berlin State Library. SONY VGN-FE21M Laptop Keyboard
During the Weimar Period the library contained 831,934 volumes (1930) and was thus one of the leading university libraries in Germany at that time.
During the Nazi book burnings in 1933, no volumes from the university library were destroyed. Also, the loss through World War II was comparatively small. In 2003, natural science related books were outhoused to the newly founded library at theAdlershof campus, which is dedicated solely to the natural sciences. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Since the premises of the State Library had to be cleared in 2005, a new library building is about to be erected close to the main building in the center of Berlin. The "Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm-Zentrum" opened in 2009. HP Mini 110-3118cl Laptop Keyboard
In total, the university library contains about 6.5 million volumes and 9000 held magazines and journals and is one of the biggest university libraries in Germany.
The books of the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft were destroyed during the Nazi book burnings and the institute destroyed. Under the terms of the Magnus HirschfeldACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
Foundation, the government had undertaken to continue the work of the institute at the university after its founder's death. However these terms were ignored. In 2001 however the university acquired the Archive for Sexology from the Robert Koch Institute, which was founded on a large private library donated by Prof. Haeberle. Lenovo 3000 V100 0763 laptop keyboard
This has now been housed at the new Magnus Hirschfeld Center.[6]
Heine was born in Düsseldorf, Rhineland, into a Jewish family. He was called "Harry" as a child, but became "Heinrich" after his conversion to Christianity in 1825.[1] Heine's father, Samson Heine (1764–1828), ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
was a textile merchant. His mother Peira (known as "Betty"), née van Geldern (1771–1859), was the daughter of a physician. Heinrich was the eldest of the four children; his siblings were Charlotte, Gustav - who later became Baron Heine-Geldern and publisher of the Viennese newspaper Das Fremdenblatt - and Maximilian, later a physician in Saint Petersburg. Lenovo 3000 N100 0768 laptop keyboard
Düsseldorf was then a small town with a population of around 16,000. The Revolution in neighbouring France and the subsequent Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars which involved Germany meant that Düsseldorf had a complicated political history during Heine's childhood. It had been the capital of the Duchy of Jülich-Berg, SONY 148781311 laptop keyboard
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but at the time of his birth it was under French occupation.[3]Then it went to the Elector of Bavaria before being ceded to Napoleon in 1806. Napoleon turned it into the capital of the Grand Duchy of Berg, one of three French states he established in Germany. It was first ruled by Joachim Murat, then by Napoleon himself.[4] In 1815, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
on Napoleon's downfall, it became part of Prussia. Heine's formative years were thus spent under French influence. The adult Heine would always be devoted to the French for introducing the Napoleonic Code and trial by jury. He glossed over the negative aspects of French rule in Berg: the heavy taxation, conscription and the economic depression brought SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard
on by the Continental Blockade (which may have ultimately contributed to Heine’s father’s bankruptcy).[5][6] Heine greatly admired Napoleon as the promoter of the revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality. SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
Heine loathed the political atmosphere in Germany after Napoleon's defeat, which was marked by the conservative policies of the Austrian chancellor Metternich, who tried to reverse the effects of the French Revolution.[7] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Heine's parents were not particularly devout Jews. When he was a young child they sent him to a Jewish school where he learned a smattering of Hebrew. Thereafter he attended Catholic schools. Here he learned French, which would be his second language, although he always spoke it with a German accent. He also acquired a lifelong love for Rhineland folklore.[8] SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard
In 1814 Heine went to a business school in Düsseldorf where he learned to read English, the commercial language of the time.[9] The most successful member of the Heine family was his uncle Salomon, who was a millionaire banker in Hamburg. In 1816 Heine moved to Hamburg to become an apprentice at Heckscher & Co, LENOVO 25-008389 laptop keyboard
his uncle Salomon's bank, but he displayed little aptitude for business. He learned to hate Hamburg with its commercial ethos but it would become one of the poles of his life alongside Paris. When he was 18, Heine almost certainly had an unrequited love for his cousin Amalie, Salomon's daughter. Whether he then transferred his affections (equally unsuccessfully) HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
to her sister Therese is unknown.[10] This period in Heine's life is not very clear, but it seems that his father Samson's business deteriorated and Samson Heine effectively became the ward of his brother Salomon.[11] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Salomon realised that his nephew had no talent for trade and it was decided that Heine should enter the law. So, in 1819, Heine went to the University of Bonn (then in Prussia). Political life in Germany was divided between conservatives and liberals. SONY VAIO VGN-NW51FB laptop keyboard
The conservatives, who were in power, wanted to restore things to the way they were before the French Revolution. They were against German unification because they felt a united Germany might fall victim to revolutionary ideas. Most German states were absolutist monarchies with a censored press. The opponents of the conservatives, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
the liberals, wanted to replace absolutism with representative, constitutional government, equality before the law and a free press. At the University of Bonn, liberal students were at war with the conservative authorities. DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
Heine was a radical liberal and one of the first things he did after his arrival was to take part in a parade which violated the Carlsbad Decrees, a series of measures introduced by Metternich to suppress liberal political activity.[12] LENOVO 25-008128 laptop keyboard
Heine was more interested in studying history and literature than law. The university had engaged the famous literary critic and thinker August Wilhelm Schlegel as a lecturer and Heine heard him talk about the Nibelungenlied Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
and Romanticism. Though he would later mock Schlegel, Heine found in him a sympathetic critic for his early verses. Heine began to acquire a reputation as a poet at Bonn. He also wrote two tragedies, Almansor and William Ratcliff, but they had little success in the theatre.[13] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
After a year at Bonn, Heine left to continue his law studies at the University of Göttingen. Heine hated the town. It was part of Hanover, ruled by the King of England, the power Heine blamed for bringing Napoleon down. Here the poet experienced an aristocratic snobbery absent elsewhere. He also hated law as the Historical School of law he had to study was used to bolster the reactionary form of government he opposed. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6959 laptop keyboard
Other events conspired to make Heine loathe this period of his life: he was expelled from a student fraternity for anti-Semitic reasons and he heard the news that his cousin Amalie had become engaged. When Heine challenged another student, Wiebel, to a duel (the first of ten known incidents throughout his life), HP Pavilion dv6-2151cl laptop keyboard
the authorities stepped in and Heine was suspended from the university for six months. His uncle now decided to send him to the University of Berlin.[14]
Heine arrived in Berlin in March 1821. It was the biggest, most cosmopolitan city he had ever visited (its population was about 200,000). DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The university gave Heine access to notable cultural figures as lecturers: the Sanskritist Franz Bopp and the Homer critic F.A. Wolf, who inspired Heine's lifelong love of Aristophanes. Most important was the philosopher Hegel, whose influence on Heine is hard to gauge. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
He probably gave Heine and other young students the idea that history had a meaning which could be seen as progressive.[15] Heine also made valuable acquaintances in Berlin, notably the liberal Karl August Varnhagen and his Jewish wife Rahel, who held a leading salon. ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Laptop Keyboard
Another friend was the satirist Karl Immermann, who had praised Heine's first verse collection, Gedichte, when it appeared in December 1821.[16] During his time in Berlin Heine also joined the Verein für Cultur und Wissenschaft der Juden, a society which attempted to achieve a balance between the Jewish faith and modernity. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Since Heine was not very religious in outlook he soon lost interest, but he also began to investigate Jewish history. He was particularly drawn to the Spanish Jews of the Middle Ages. In 1824 Heine began a historical novel,Der Rabbi von Bacherach, which he never managed to finish.[17]
· Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Here he began to write the poems of the cycle Die Heimkehr("The Homecoming"). He returned to Göttingen where he was again bored by the law. In September 1824 he decided to take a break and set off on a trip through the Harz mountains. On his return he started writing an account of it, Die Harzreise.[18] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
On 28 June 1825 Heine converted to Protestantism. The Prussian government had been gradually restoring discrimination against Jews. In 1822 it introduced a law excluding Jews from academic posts and Heine had ambitions for a university career. As Heine said in self-justification, his conversion was "the ticket of admission into European culture". Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
In the event, Heine's conversion, which was reluctant, never brought him any benefits in his career.[19][20]
In Hamburg one evening in January 1826 Heine met Julius Campe, who would be his chief publisher for the rest of his life. Their stormy relationship has been compared to a marriage. Campe was a liberal who published as many dissident authors as he could. He had developed various techniques for evading the authorities. Lenovo Thinkpad T420 Keyboard
The laws of the time stated that any book under 320 pages had to be submitted to censorship (the authorities thought long books would cause little trouble as they were unpopular). One way round censorship was to publish dissident works in large print to increase the number of pages beyond 320. Lenovo Thinkpad T420i Keyboard
The censorship in Hamburg was relatively lax but Campe had to worry about Prussia, the largest German state which had the largest market for books (it was estimated that one-third of the German readership was Prussian). Initially, any book which had passed the censor in a German state was able to be sold in any of the other states but in 1834 this loophole was closed. Lenovo Thinkpad T420S Keyboard
Campe was reluctant to publish uncensored books as he had bad experience of print runs being confiscated. Heine resisted all censorship. So this issue became a bone of contention between the two.[22] But the relationship between author and publisher started well: Campe published the first volume of Reisebilder ("Travel Pictures") SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
in May 1826. This volume included Die Harzreise, which marked a new style of German travel-writing, mixing Romantic descriptions of Nature with satire. Heine's Buch der Lieder followed in 1827. This was a collection of already published poems. Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
No one expected it would be one of the most popular books of German verse ever published and sales were slow to start with, picking up when composers began setting Heine's poems as Lieder.[23] For example the poem "Allnächtlich im Traume" of the Buch der Lieder was set to music by Robert Schumann as well as by Felix Mendelssohn. It contains the ironical disillusionment which is typical of Heine: SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Heine went to England to avoid what he predicted would be controversy over the publication of this work. In London he cashed a cheque from his uncle for £200 (equal to £14,660 today), much to Salomon's chagrin. Heine was unimpressed by the English: he found them commercial and prosaic and still blamed them for the defeat of Napoleon.[27] HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
On his return to Germany, Cotta, the liberal publisher of Goethe and Schiller, offered Heine a job co-editing a magazine, Politische Annalen, in Munich. Heine did not find work on the newspaper congenial, and instead tried to obtain a professorship at Munich University, with no success.[28] After a few months he took a trip to northern Italy, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
visiting Lucca, Florence and Venice, but was forced to return when he received news that his father had died. This Italian journey resulted in a series of new works: Die Reise von München nach Genua ("Journey from Munich to Genoa"),DHP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
ie Bäder von Lucca ("The Baths of Lucca") and Die Stadt Lucca ("The Town of Lucca").[29] Die Bäder von Lucca embroiled Heine in controversy. The aristocratic poet August von Platen had been annoyed by some epigrams by Immermann which Heine had included in the second volume of Reisebilder. He counter-attacked by writing a play, Die romantische Ödipus, GATEWAY 101974 laptop keyboard
which included anti-Semitic jibes about Heine. Heine was stung and responded by mocking Platen's homosexuality in Die Bäder von Lucca.[30]
In 1831 Heine left Germany for France, settling in Paris for his remaining 25 years of life. His move was prompted by the July Revolution of 1830 HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
which had made Louis-Philippe the "Citizen King" of the French. Heine shared liberal enthusiasm for the revolution, which he felt had the potential to overturn the conservative political order in Europe.[31] Heine was also attracted by the prospect of freedom from German censorship and was interested in the new French utopian political doctrine ofSaint-Simonianism. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
Saint-Simonianism preached a new social order in whichmeritocracy would replace hereditary distinctions in rank and wealth. There would also be female emancipation and an important role for artists and scientists. Heine frequented some Saint-Simonian meetings after his arrival in Paris but within a few years his enthusiasm for the ideology - and other forms of utopianism- had waned.[32][33] ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
Heine soon became a celebrity in France. Paris offered him a cultural richness unavailable in the smaller cities of Germany. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
He made many famous acquaintances (the closest were Gérard de Nerval and Hector Berlioz) but he always remained something of an outsider. He had little interest in French literature and wrote everything in German, subsequently translating it into French with the help of a collaborator.[34] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
In Paris, Heine earned money working as the French correspondent for one of Cotta's newspapers, the Allgemeine Zeitung. The first event he covered was the Salon of 1831. His articles were eventually collected in a volume entitledFranzösische Zustände ("Conditions in France").[35] DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
Heine saw himself as a mediator between Germany and France. If the two countries understood one another there would be progress. To further this aim he published De l'Allemagne ("On Germany") in French (begun 1833). In its later German version, the book is divided into two: Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland ("On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany") and Die romantische Schule ("The Romantic School").HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
Heine was deliberately attacking Madame de Staël's book De l'Allemagne (1813) which he viewed as reactionary, Romantic and obscurantist. He felt de Staël had portrayed a Germany of "poets and thinkers", dreamy, HP 6043B0034801A02 CPU FAN
religious, introverted and cut off from the revolutionary currents of the modern world. Heine thought that such an image suited the oppressive German authorities. He also had an Enlightenment view of the past, seeing it as mired in superstition and atrocities. "Religion and Philosophy in Germany" describes the replacement of traditional "spiritualist" HP 606013-001 CPU FAN
religion by a pantheism that pays attention to human material needs. According to Heine, pantheism had been repressed by Christianity and had survived in German folklore. He predicted that German thought would prove a more explosive force than the French Revolution.[36] HP 606574-001 CPU FAN
HP 606575-001 CPU FAN
Heine and his fellow radical exile in Paris, Ludwig Börne, had become the role models for a younger generation of writers who were given the name "Young Germany". They included Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube, Theodor Mundt and Ludolf Wienbarg. They were liberal, but not actively political. Nevertheless, they still fell foul of the authorities. HP 606609-001 CPU FAN
In 1835 Gutzkow published a novel, Wally die Zweiflerin ("Wally the Sceptic"), which contained criticism of the institution of marriage and some mildly erotic passages. In November of that year, the German Diet consequently banned publication of works by the Young Germans in Germany and – on Metternich's HP 608378-001 CPU FAN
insistence – Heine's name was added to their number. Heine, however, continued to comment on German politics and society from a distance. His publisher was able to find some ways of getting around the censors and he was still free, of course, to publish in France.[38][39] HP 608772-001 CPU FAN
Heine's relationship with his fellow dissident Ludwig Börne was troubled. Since Börne did not attack religion or traditional morality like Heine, the German authorities hounded him less although they still banned his books as soon as they appeared. Börne was the idol of German immigrant workers in Paris. He was also a republican, HP 610773-001 CPU FAN
while Heine was not. Heine regarded Börne, with his admiration for Robespierre, as a puritanical neo-Jacobin and remained aloof from him in Paris, which upset Börne, who began to criticise him (mostly semi-privately). In February 1837, Börne died. When Heine heard that Gutzkow was writing a biography of Börne, he began work on his own, severely critical "memorial" of the man. HP 610774-001 CPU FAN
When the book was published in 1840 it was universally disliked by the radicals and served to alienate Heine from his public. Even his enemies admitted that Börne was a man of integrity so Heine's ad hominem attacks on him were viewed as being in poor taste. Heine had made personal attacks on Börne's closest friend Jeanette Wohl so Jeannette'sHP 610777-001 CPU FAN
husband challenged Heine to a duel. It was the last Heine ever fought - he received a flesh wound in the hip. Before fighting, he decided to safeguard Mathilde's future in the event of his death by marrying her.[40] HP 622028-001 CPU FAN
Heine continued to write reports for Cotta's Allgemeine Zeitung (and, when Cotta died, for his son and successor). One event which really galvanised him was the 1840 Damascus Affair in which Jews in Damascus had been subject to blood libel and accused of murdering an old Catholic monk. HP 622029-001 CPU FAN
This led to a wave of anti-Semitic persecution. The French government, aiming at imperialism in the Middle East and not wanting to offend the Catholic party, had failed to condemn the outrage. On the other hand, the Austrian consul in Damascus had assiduously exposed the blood libel as a fraud. For Heine, this was a reversal of values: HP 622330-001 CPU FAN
reactionary Austria standing up for the Jews while revolutionary France temporised. Heine responded by dusting off and publishing his unfinished novel about the persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages, Der Rabbi von Bacherach.[41] HP 637607-001 CPU FAN
In October 1843, Karl Marx and his wife Jenny von Westphalen arrived in Paris after the Prussian government had suppressed Marx's radical newspaper. The Marx family settled in Rue Vaneau. Marx was an admirer of Heine and his early writings show Heine's influence. In December Heine met the Marxes and got on well with them. HP 646578-001 CPU FAN
He published several poems, including Die schlesischen Weber, in Marx's new journal Vorwärts ("Forwards"). Ultimately Heine's ideas of revolution through sensual emancipation and Marx's "scientific materialism" were incompatible, but both writers shared the same negativity and lack of faith in the bourgeoisie. HP 657529-001 CPU FAN
In the isolation he felt after the Börne debacle, Marx's friendship came as a relief to Heine, since he did not really like the other radicals. On the other hand, he did not share Marx's faith in the industrial proletariat and remained on the fringes of socialist circles. The Prussian government, angry at the publication of Vorwärts, HP AB0505HX-J0B CPU FAN
put pressure on France to deal with its authors and in January 1845 Marx was deported to Belgium. Heine could not be expelled from the country because he had the right of residence in France, having been born under French occupation.[44] HP AB5205HB-EBB CPU FAN
Thereafter Heine and Marx maintained a sporadic correspondence, but in time their admiration for one another faded.[45][46] Heine always had mixed feelings about communism. He believed its radicalism and materialism would destroy much of the European culture that he loved and admired. HP AB5505HX-K0B CPU FAN
In the French edition of "Lutetia" Heine wrote, one year before he died: "This confession, that the future belongs to the Communists, I made with an undertone of the greatest fear and sorrow and, oh!, this undertone by no means is a mask! Indeed, HP AB5505HX-OBB CPU FAN
with fear and terror I imagine the time, when those dark iconoclasts come to power: with their raw fists they will batter all marble images of my beloved world of art, they will ruin all those fantastic anecdotes that the poets loved so much, they will chop down my Laurel forests and plant potatoes and, oh!, HP AB7205HX-GC1 CPU FAN
the herbs chandler will use my Book of Songs to make bags for coffee and snuff for the old women of the future – oh!, I can foresee all this and I feel deeply sorry thinking of this decline threatening my poetry and the old world order - And yet, I freely confess, HP AB7205HX-GC3 CPU FAN
the same thoughts have a magical appeal upon my soul which I cannot resist .... In my chest there are two voices in their favour which cannot be silenced .... because the first one is that of logic ... and as I cannot object to the premise "that all people have the right to eat", HP AB7805HX-L03 CPU FAN
I must defer to all the conclusions....The second of the two compelling voices, of which I am talking, is even more powerful than the first, because it is the voice of hatred, the hatred I dedicate to this common enemy that constitutes the most distinctive contrast to communism and that will oppose the angry giant already at the first instance –HP CWTT8 CPU FAN
I am talking about the party of the so-called advocates of nationality in Germany, about those false patriots whose love for the fatherland only exists in the shape of imbecile distaste of foreign countries and neighbouring peoples and who daily pour their bile especially on France".[47] HP DFS450805M10T CPU FAN
In October–December 1843 Heine made a journey to Hamburg to see his aged mother and to patch things up with Campe with whom he had had a quarrel. He was reconciled with the publisher who agreed to provide Mathilde with an annuity for the rest of her life after Heine's death. Heine repeated the trip with his wife in July–October 1844 to HP DFS531205HC0T CPU FAN
see Uncle Salomon, but this time things did not go so well. It was the last time Heine would ever leave France.[48] At the time, Heine was working on two linked but antithetical poems with Shakespearean titles: Deutschland: Ein Wintermärchen ("Germany. A Winter's Tale") and Atta Troll: Ein Sommernachtstraum ("Atta Troll: A Midsummer Night's Dream").HP DFS551305MC0T CPU FAN
· The former is based on his journey to Germany in late 1843 and outdoes the radical poets in its satirical attacks on the political situation in the country.[49] Atta Troll (actually begun in 1841 after a trip to the Pyrenees) mocks the literary failings Heine saw in the radical poets, particularly Freiligrath. It tells the story of the hunt for a runaway bear, Atta Troll, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboardwho symbolises many of the attitudes Heine despised, including a simple-minded egalitarianism and a religious view which makes God in the believer's image (Atta Troll conceives God as an enormous, heavenly polar bear). Atta Troll's cubs embody the nationalistic views Heine loathed.[50] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Atta Troll was not published until 1847, but Deutschland appeared in 1844 as part of a collection Neue Gedichte ("New Poems"), which gathered all the verse Heine had written since 1831.[51] In the same year Uncle Salomon died. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
This put a stop to Heine's annual subsidy of 4,800 francs. Salomon left Heine and his brothers 8,000 francs each in his will. Heine's cousin Carl, the inheritor of Salomon's business, offered to pay him 2,000 francs a year at his discretion. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
Heine was furious; he had expected much more from the will and his campaign to make Carl revise its terms occupied him for the next two years.[52]
In 1844, Heine wrote series of musical feuilletons over several different music seasons discussing the music of the day. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
However, Heine was not always honorable in his musical criticism. In April 1844 he wrote to Liszt suggesting that he might like to look at a newspaper review he had written of Liszt's performance before his concert; he indicated that that it contained comments Liszt would not like. Liszt took this as an attempt to extort money for a positive review and did not meet Heine. Heine's review subsequently appeared on April 25Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
in Musikalische Berichte aus Paris and attributed Liszt's success to lavish expenditures on bouquets and to the wild behaviour of his hysterical female "fans." Liszt then broke relations with Heine. Liszt was not the only musician to be blackmailed by Heine for the nonpayment of "appreciation money." Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
Meyerbeer had both lent and given money to Heine, but after refusing to hand over a further 500 francs was repaid by being dubbed "a music corrupter" in Heine's poem Die Menge tut es.[53] HP F787 CPU FAN
In May 1848, Heine, who had not been well, suddenly fell paralyzed and had to be confined to bed. He would not leave what he called his "mattress-grave" (Matratzengruft) until his death eight years later. He also experienced difficulties with his eyes.[54] It had been suggested that he suffered from multiple sclerosis or syphilis, HP F9C5 CPU FAN
although in 1997 it was confirmed through an analysis of the poet's hair that he had suffered from chronic lead poisoning.[55] He bore his sufferings stoically and he won much public sympathy for his plight.[56] His illness meant he paid less attention than he might otherwise have done to the revolutions which broke out in France and Germany in 1848. HP GB0507PGV1-A CPU FAN
He was sceptical about the Frankfurt Assembly and continued to attack the King of Prussia. When the revolution collapsed, Heine resumed his oppositional stance. At first he had some hope Louis Napoleon might be a good leader in France but he soon began to share the opinion of Marx towards him as the new emperor began to crack down on liberalism and socialism.[57] HP GC055515VH-A CPU FAN
In 1848 Heine also returned to religious faith. In fact, he had never claimed to be an atheist. Nevertheless, he remained sceptical of organised religion.[58]
He continued to work from his sickbed: on the collections of poems Romanzero and Gedichte. 1853 und 1854, on the journalism collected in Lutezia, and on his unfinished memoirs.[59] HP GC057015VH-A CPU FAN
During these final years Heine had a love affair with the young Camille Selden, who visited him regularly.[60] He died on 17 February 1856 and was interred in the ParisCimetière de Montmartre. His wife Mathilde survived him, dying in 1883. The couple had no children.[61] HP GC057514VH-A CPU FAN
Among the thousands of books burned on Berlin's Opernplatz in 1933, following the Nazi raid on theInstitut für Sexualwissenschaft, were works by Heinrich Heine. To commemorate the terrible event, one of the most famous lines of Heine's 1821 play Almansor was engraved in the ground at the site: HP KDB0505HB CPU FAN
"Das war ein Vorspiel nur, dort wo man Bücher verbrennt, verbrennt man auch am Ende Menschen." ("That was but a prelude; where they burn books, they will ultimately burn people as well.") HP KDB05605HB CPU FAN
In 1834, 99 years before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party seized power in Germany, Heine wrote in his work "The History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany":
"Christianity - and that is its greatest merit - has somewhat mitigated that brutal Germanic love of war, but it could not destroy it. HP KSB0605HB CPU FAN
Should that subduing talisman, the cross, be shattered, the frenzied madness of the ancient warriors, that insane Berserk rage of which Nordic bards have spoken and sung so often, will once more burst into flame. HP KSB06105HA CPU FAN
Then the ancient stony gods will rise from the forgotten debris and rub the dust of a thousand years from their eyes, and finally Thor with his giant hammer will jump up and smash the Gothic cathedrals. (...)HP MCF-811AM05 CPU FAN
"Do not smile at my advice -- the advice of a dreamer who warns you against Kantians, Fichteans, and philosophers of nature. Do not smile at the visionary who anticipates the same revolution in the realm of the visible as has taken place in the spiritual. Thought precedes action as lightning precedes thunder. German thunder is of true Germanic character; it is not very nimble, HP MCF-W13BM05 CPU FAN
but rumbles along ponderously. Yet, it will come and when you hear a crashing such as never before has been heard in the world's history, then you know that the German thunderbolt has fallen at last. At that uproar the eagles of the air will drop dead, and lions in the remotest deserts of Africa will hide in their royal dens. HP 540 CPU FAN
A play will be performed in Germany which will make the French Revolution look like an innocent idyll."
In the 1890s, amidst a flowering of affection for Heine leading up to the centennial of his birth, plans were enacted to honor Heine with a memorial; HP 550 CPU FAN
these were strongly supported by one of Heine's greatest admirers, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria. The empress commissioned a statue from the sculptor Louis Hasselriis. Another memorial, a sculpted fountain, was commissioned for Düsseldorf. HP 6445B Series CPU FAN
While at first the plan met with enthusiasm, the concept was gradually bogged down in anti-Semitic, nationalist, and religious criticism; by the time the fountain was finished, there was no place to put it. Through the intervention of German American activists, HP 6520s CPU FAN
the memorial was ultimately transplanted into The Bronx. Known in English as the Lorelei Fountain, Germans refer to it as the Heinrich Heine Memorial.[64] Also, after years of controversy, the University of Düsseldorf was named Heinrich Heine University. HP 6545B Series CPU FAN
Today the city honours its poet with a boulevard (Heinrich-Heine-Allee) and a modern monument. A Heine statue, originally located near Empress Elisabeth's palace in Corfu, was later rejected by Hamburg, but eventually found a home inToulon.[65] HP 6720 CPU FAN
In Israel, the attitude to Heine has long been the subject of debate between secularists, who number him among the most prominent figures of Jewish history, and the religious who consider his conversion to Christianity to be an unforgivable act of betrayal. HP 6820s CPU FAN
Due to such debates, the city of Tel-Aviv delayed naming a street for Heine, and the street finally chosen to bear his name is located in a rather desolate industrial zone rather than in the vicinity ofTel-Aviv University, suggested by some public figures as the appropriate location. HP EliteBook 6930P Series CPU FAN
Ha'ir (a left-leaning Tel-Aviv magazine) sarcastically suggested that "The Exiling of Heine Street" symbolically re-enacted the course of Heine's own life. Since then, a street in the Yemin Moshe neighborhood of Jerusalem and a community center in Haifa have been named after Heine. A Heine Appreciation Society is active in Israel, HP EliteBook 8530 Series CPU FAN
led by prominent political figures from both the left and right camps. His quote about burning books is prominently displayed in the Yad Vashem Holocaust museum in Jerusalem. (It is also displayed in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). HP EliteBook 8530p Series CPU FAN
Russia was dependent on imports for both the domestic economy and the supply of her military forces, and the blockade seriously undermined the Russian economy. Raiding by allied British and French fleets destroyed forts on the Finnish coast including the newly constructed Bomarsund on the Åland Islands which was raided on 3 July through 16 July 1854,[35] and Fort Slava. HP EliteBook 8530w Series CPU FAN
Other such attacks were not so successful, and the poorly planned attempts to take Hanko,[36]Ekenäs, Kokkola, and Turku were repulsed.
The burning of tar warehouses and ships in Oulu and Raahe led to international criticism and, in Britain, MP Thomas Gibson demanded in the House of Commons that the First Lord of the Admiralty explain "a system which carried on a great war by plundering and destroying the property of defenceless villagers".HP Envy 13 Series CPU FAN
In 1855 the Western Allied Baltic Fleet tried to destroy heavily defended Russian dockyards at Sveaborg outsideHelsinki. More than 1,000 enemy guns tested the strength of the fortress for two days. Despite the shelling, the sailors of the 120-gun ship Rossiya, led by Captain Viktor Poplonsky, defended the entrance to the harbor. HP Envy 13-1000 CPU FAN
The Allies fired over twenty thousand shells but were unable to defeat the Russian batteries. A massive new fleet of more than 350 gunboats and mortar vessels was prepared, but before the attack was launched, the war ended. HP Envy 13-1001TX CPU FAN
When the Crimean War broke out, many Greeks felt that it was an opportunity to regain Ottoman-controlled Greek territory to add to the recently liberated territory of the independent Kingdom of Greece. The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) was still fresh in people's minds, as well as the Russian intervention that had helped secure Greek independence. HP Envy 13-1002TX CPU FAN
Just before the Greek War of Independence a leader of Filiki Eteria, Alexander Ypsilantis, and his brother Demetrios Ypsilantis had led Russian troops into Moldavia and Wallachia and coordinated the preparations for uprisings throughout Ottoman-occupied Greece which they later led. HP Envy 13-1003XX CPU FAN
Moreover, Greeks had always considered Orthodox Christian Russia as an ally and viewed the Crimean War as a grave injustice against Russia and any support of the Ottoman Empire a grave threat to Greece's recent independence.[citation needed]
HP Envy 13-1004TX CPU FAN
[41] A revolt also broke out in Crete, with support from individuals and groups within independent Greece and Constantinople. However, all Greek revolts in the Turkish provinces were soon suppressed. A small Greek volunteer force under Colonel Panos Koronaios went to Russia and fought during the Siege of Sevastopol. HP Envy 13-1005TX CPU FAN
However, more Greek nationals fought in the Crimean War with the "Greek Battalion of Balaklava" which had been in the ranks of the Russian army since the first Russo-Turkish war (1768–1774). HP Envy 13-1006TX CPU FAN
Dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war was growing with the public in Britain and in other countries, aggravated by reports of fiascos, especially the humiliating defeat of the Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava. In parliament, Tories demanded an accounting of all soldiers, cHP Envy 13-1007EV CPU FAN
avalry and sailors sent to the Crimea and accurate figures as to the number of casualties that had been sustained by all British armed forces in the Crimea; they were especially concerned with the Battle of Balaclava. HP Envy 13-1007LA CPU FAN
When Parliament passed a bill to investigate by the vote of 305 to 148, Aberdeen said he had lost a vote of no confidence and resigned as prime minister on 30 January 1855.[42] The veteran former Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston formed a Whig government with backing from the Irish MPs.[43] HP Envy 13-1007TX CPU FAN
Peace negotiations at the Congress of Paris resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 30 March 1856. In compliance with art. III Russia restored to the Ottoman Empire the city and citadel of Kars in common with "all other parts of the Ottoman territory of which the Russian troop were in possession. HP Envy 13-1008TX CPU FAN
" By art. IV Britain, France, Sardinia and Turkey restored to Russia "the towns and ports of Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamish, Eupatoria, Kerch, Jenikale, Kinburn, as well as all other territories occupied by the allied troops." In conformity with art. XI and XIII the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coast. HP Envy 13-1010ER CPU FAN
The Black Sea clauses weakened Russia, and it no longer posed a naval threat to the Ottomans. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were nominally returned to the Ottoman Empire; in practice they became independent. The Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.[9]:432–33HP Envy 13-1015ER CPU FAN
The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. While Prussia and several other German states united to form a powerful German Empire, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon III, was deposed to permit the formation of a Third French Republic. During his reign, Napoleon III, eager for the support of Great Britain, HP Envy 13-1030CA CPU FAN
had opposed Russia over the Eastern Question. Russian interference in the Ottoman Empire, however, did not in any significant manner threaten the interests of France. Thus, France abandoned its opposition to Russia after the establishment of a republic. Encouraged by the decision of the French and supported by the German minister Otto von Bismarck, HP Envy 13-1030NR CPU FAN
Russia renounced the Black Sea clauses of the treaty agreed to in 1856. As Great Britain alone could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again established a fleet in the Black Sea.
Although it was Russia that was punished by the Paris Treaty, in the long run it was Austria that would lose the most from the Crimean War despite having barely taken part in the war.[9]:433HP Envy 13-1050EA CPU FAN
Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war,[9]:433 which contributed to its defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War[9]:433 and its loss of influence in most German-speaking lands. HP Envy 13-1050EF CPU FAN
With France, now hostile to Germany, allied with Russia, and Russia competing with the newly renamed Austro-Hungarian Empire for an increased role in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, the foundations were in place for creating the diplomatic alliances that would lead to World War I. HP Envy 13-1050EG CPU FAN
Notwithstanding the guarantees to preserve Ottoman territories specified in the Treaty of Paris, Russia, exploiting nationalist unrest in the Ottoman states in the Balkans and seeking to regain lost prestige, once again declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877. In this later Russo-Turkish Warthe states of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria achieved their autonomy from direct Ottoman rule. HP Envy 13-1050ES CPU FAN
The Crimean War marked the ascendancy of France to the position of pre-eminent power on the Continent[9]:411 and the beginning of a decline for Tsarist Russia. Thus, the Crimean War represented one of the main causes of the demise of the Concert of Europe, the balance of power that had dominated Europe since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and which had included France, Russia, Austria and Britain. HP Envy 13-1099EO CPU FAN
The Crimean War was notorious for the military and logistical immaturity of the British army. However, it highlighted the work of women who served as army nurses. War correspondents for newspapers reported the scandalous HP Envy 13-1099XL CPU FAN
treatment of wounded soldiers in the desperate winter that followed and prompted the work of Florence Nightingale, Mary Seacole,Frances Margaret Taylor and others and led to the introduction of modern nursing methods. HP Envy 13-1100 CPU FAN
The Crimean War also saw the first tactical use of railways and other modern inventions such as the electric telegraph, with the first "live" war reporting to The Times by William Howard Russell. Some credit Russell with prompting the resignation of the sitting British government through his reporting of the lacklustre HP Envy 13-1940EZ CPU FAN
shape of the British forces deployed to the Crimea. Additionally, the telegraph reduced the independence of British overseas possessions from their commanders in London due to such rapid communications. Newspaper readership informed public opinion in the United Kingdom and France as never before.[45] It was the first European war to be photographed. HP Envy 13t-1000 CPU FAN
The war also employed modern military tactics, such as trenches and blind artillery fire. The use of the Minié ball for shot, coupled with the rifling of barrels, greatly increased Allied rifle range and damage. HP Envy 14 Series CPU FAN
The British Army system of sale of commissions came under great scrutiny during the war, especially in connection with the Battle of Balaclava, which saw the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade. This scrutiny eventually led to the abolition of the sale of commissions. HP Envy 14-1000wx CPU FAN
The Crimean War was a contributing factor in the Russian abolition of serfdom in 1861: Tsar Alexander II (Nicholas I's son and successor) saw the military defeat of the Russian serf-army by free troops from Britain and France as proof of the need for emancipation.[46] HP Envy 14-1001tx CPU FAN
The Crimean War also led to the eventual realisation by the Russian government of its technological inferiority, in military practices as well as weapons.[47] HP Envy 14-1000xx CPU FAN
Russia had incurred so large a war debt from the Crimean War that Alexander II, realising the difficulty of defending Alaska, decided to sell it to a third party, the United States, in 1867. (No valuable minerals, let alone gold or oil, were discovered in Alaska until 1880, thirteen years after the sale.) HP Envy 14-1002tx CPU FAN
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