Himalayas
The Himalayas, or Himalaya, (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə/ or /hɪˈmɑːləjə/; Sanskrit, hima (snow) + ālaya (dwelling), literally, "abode of the snow"[1]) is a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayan range is home to the planet's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. The Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres (23,600 ft) in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres (22,838 ft) tall.[2] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia. Many Himalayan peaks are sacred in both Buddhism and Hinduism.
Besides the Greater Himalayas of these high peaks there are parallel lower ranges. The first foothills, reaching about a thousand meters along the northern edge of the plains, are called the Sivalik Hills or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north is a higher range reaching two to three thousand meters known as the Lower Himalayan or Mahabharat Range. HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas abut or cross six countries: Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan, with the first three countries having sovereignty over most of the range.[3] The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by theIndo-Gangetic Plain. ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
Three of the world's major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, all rise near Mount Kailash and cross and encircle the Himalayas. Their combined drainage basin is home to some 600 million people. HP Pavilion DV6-1020el Laptop Keyboard
Lifted by the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate,[4] the Himalayan range runs, west-northwest to east-southeast, in an arc 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) long. Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river, its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river. TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
The range varies in width from 400 kilometres (250 mi) in the west to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in the east.
The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 Laptop Keyboard
The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. For example the extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure) combined with extreme cold allow extremophile organisms to survive.[5] ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard
The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature may shift various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard
There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially rhododendron, apple and Myrica esculenta. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres (16,080 ft) in Southeastern Tibet.[6] HP G62-a10EO Laptop Keyboard
The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary andmetamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, SONY VAIO VGN-SZ160P/C Laptop Keyboard
their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate was moving at about 15 cm per year. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, ACER Ferrari 1100 Laptop Keyboard
and the volcanoesthat fringed its edges. Since both plates were composed of low density continental crust, they were thrust faulted andfolded into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the mantle along an oceanic trench.[4] An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.[7] DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards. The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west.[8] In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 metres (3,300–6,600 Dell Inspiron 2500 Laptop Keyboard
ft).[8][9] While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20 to 32 kilometres (12 to 20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60 to 112 kilometres (37 to 70 mi) long during the ice age.[8] The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 metres (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least 7.0 to 8.3 °C (12.6 to 14.9 °F) colder than it is today.[10] SONY VAIO PCG-F520 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas have the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and the Arctic.[11] The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 (3000 cubic miles) of fresh water.[12]Its glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region), and Zemu(Sikkim).
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[13] In contrast, equatorial mountains in New Guinea, the Rwenzoris andColombia have a snow line some 900 metres (2,950 ft) lower.[14] The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems: SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
The easternmost Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south throughMyanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea.
The Salween, Mekong, Yangtze and Huang He (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains, and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. GATEWAY MG2 laptop keyboard
Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the circum-Himalayan rivers.[16] In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of global climate change.[17] For example, Lenovo ThinkPad T510-4314 laptop keyboard
Glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers of northern India during the dry seasons.[18] ACER TravelMate 3010 laptop keyboard
Some of the lakes present a danger of a glacial lake outburst flood. The Tsho Rolpa glacier lake in the Rolwaling Valley is rated as the most dangerous in Nepal.[19][20]
The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see also Highest unclimbed mountain). COMPAQ Presario V3628TU laptop keyboard
A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominence or re-ascent (the higher summit is called the "parent peak"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
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approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, like the Eiger orNuptse. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included but not numbered in this list. HP G61-420SL Laptop Keyboard
It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
As an extreme example, Ulugh Muztagh on the north Tibetan Plateau is often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by > 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements of Mount Everest range from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,850 m (29,035 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, because synthetic aperture radar can and has been used to measure altitudes of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights and/or prominences may be revised, TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
so that the order of the list may change and even "new" mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all >7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks.
The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butMount McKinley, SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration Mauna Kea (4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and volcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the Pacific Ocean floor. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Ojos del Salado has the greatest rise on Earth—13,420 m (44,029 ft) from the summit[citation needed] to the bottom of the Atacama Trench about 560 km (350 mi) away, though most of this rise is not part of the mountain. SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa (4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 2,000 sq mi or 5,200 km2) and volume (about 10,000 cu mi or 42,000 km3), although, SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
due to the intergrade of lava from Kilauea, Hualalai and Mauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice). Mt. Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (245 sq mi or 635 km2) DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
and volume (1,150 cu mi or 4,793 km3). Mount Logan is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (120 sq mi or 311 km2).
The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán, is another contender.[1] Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km less than that of Everest. FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard
Most mountains in the list are located in the Himalaya and Karakoram ranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. In fact, all 7,000 m (23,000 ft) peaks in the world are located in the centre of Asia (East Asia,Central Asia and South Asia) in a rectangle edged by Noshaq COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on the Afghanistan-Pakistanborder in the West, Jengish Chokusu, (Tuōmù'ěr Fēng) (7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on the Kyrgyzstan – Xinjiang border to the North, Gongga Shan (Minya Konka) (7,556 m or 24,790 ft) in Sichuan to the East, and Kabru (7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on the Sikkim (India) – Nepal border to the South. SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard
The highest mountain outside of Asia is Aconcagua (6,962 m or 22,841 ft), which one list has ranking 189th in the world amongst mountains with a 500 m or 1,640 ft prominence cutoff. [2]
The locations of the highest mountains are shown on the composite satellite image of High Asia below. The numbers refer to the ranking in the list. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
For clarity, lower peaks with labels overlapping higher peaks are left out of the main image. The boxed regions are those with the highest density of summits and are enlarged in two separate images to show all peaks. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M laptop keyboard
The Sivalik hills are the southernmost and geologically youngest east-west mountain chain of theHimalayas. The Siwaliks have many sub-ranges. They extend west from Arunachal Pradesh through Bhutanto West Bengal, Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
and further westward through Nepal and Uttarakhand, continuing into Himachal Pradeshand Kashmir. The hills are cut through at wide intervals by numerous large rivers flowing south from the Himalayas. SONY VAIO VGN-CR24G laptop keyboard
Smaller rivers without sources in the high Himalayas are more likely to detour around sub-ranges. Southern slopes have networks of small rills and channels, giving rise to ephemeral streams during the monsoon and into the post-monsoon season until groundwater supplies are depleted.[citation needed] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The Sivalik hills are chiefly composed of sandstone and conglomerate rock formations, which are the solidified detritus of the great range in their rear, but often poorly consolidated. The remnant magnetization of siltstonesand sandstones suggests a depositional age of 16-5.2 million years with Karnali River exposing the oldest part of the Siwalik Group in Nepal.[3] HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
They are bounded on the south by a fault system called the Main Frontal Thrust, with steeper slopes on that side. Below this, the coarse alluvial Bhabhar zone makes the transition to the nearly level plains. Rainfall, especially during the summermonsoon, ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
percolates into the bhabar, then is forced to the surface by finer alluvial layers below it in a zone of springs and marshes along the northern edge of the Terai or plains. This wet zone was heavily malarial infested before DDT was used to suppress mosquitoes. HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
It was left forested by official decree by Nepal's Rana rulers as a defensive perimeter called Char Kose Jhadi (four kos forest, one kos equalling about three km or two miles). Upslope, the permeable geology together with temperatures routinely exceeding 40° Celsius throughout April and May only supports a low, sparse, drought-tolerant scrub forest.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
North of the Siwalik belt the 1,500-3,000 meter Lesser Himalayas also known as the Mahabharat Range rises steeply along fault lines. In many places the two ranges are adjacent but in other places structural valleys 10–20 km wide separate them. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
These valleys are called Duns or Doons in India, which includes Dehradun, Patli Dun and Kothri Dun, both in Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, and also Pinjore Dun in Himachal Pradesh. In Nepal, these valleys are called Inner Terai and include Chitwan, Dang-Deukhuri and Surkhet.[citation needed] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-JS03UK laptop keyboard
The Mahabharat Range (Nepali: महाभारत श्रृंखला mahābhārat shrinkhalā) – also called the Lesser Himalaya – is a major east-west mountain range with elevations 1,500 to 2,700 m (5,000 to 9,000 feet) along the crest, paralleling the much higher Great Himalaya range from the Indus River in Pakistanacross northern India, Nepal, Packard Bell Easynote TK87 laptop keyboard
Sikkim and Bhutan but then the two ranges become increasingly difficult to differentiate east of Bhutan as the ranges approach the Brahmaputra River. The Mahabharat range also parallels the lower Shivalik or Churia Range (Outer Himalaya) to the south. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
Southern slopes of the Mahabharat Range are steep and nearly uninhabited due to a major fault system called the 'Main Boundary Thrust". The crest and northern slopes slope gently enough to support upland pastures and terraced fields. Nepal's densely populated Middle Hills begin along the crest, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
extending north through lower valleys and other "hills" until population thins out above 2,000 m and cereal-based agriculture increasingly gives way to seasonal herding and cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes. HP Pavilion dv6-2105ew laptop keyboard
Most ethnic groups found along the Mahabharat Range and northward into the Middle Hills have Tibeto-Burman affinities including Nepalese origins of Newar,Magar, Gurung, Tamang, Rai and Limbu, however the most populous ethnic group is Indo-European Hindus called Paharis, TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 laptop keyboard
mainly of the upper Brahman andKshatriya or Chhetri castes. Lower terrain south of the escarpment was historically malarial and inhabited by apparently aboriginal peoples with evolved immunity, notably the Tharu. ASUS A8M laptop keyboard
The Mahabharat Range is an important hydrographic barrier crossed by relatively few rivers. Drainage systems have evolved candelabra configurations with numerous tributaries flowing south from the Himalaya through the Middle Hills, HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard
gathering immediately north of the Mahabharat Range and cutting through in major gorges as the Karnali in the west, the Gandaki or Narayani in central Nepal, and the Kosi in the east. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
With temperatures persisting around forty degrees celsius in the plains of India from April until the onset of the summer monsoon in June, but ten to fifteen degrees cooler atop the Mahabharat Range, HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee Laptop Keyboard
Hill Stations were developed as alternate capitals and resorts for the hot season by India's Mughal andBritish rulers. There are no hill stations per se in Nepal, Sikkim or Bhutan since the capital cities are high enough to avoid extreme heat. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The Indus-Ganga Plain also known as The North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the most populous parts of Pakistan, parts of southern Nepal and virtually all ofBangladesh. The region is named after the Indus and the Ganga, the twin river systems that drain it. FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard
The plain's population density is very high due to the fertile soil for farming. The plains support one of the most populous areas on Earth, being home to nearly 1 billion people (or around 1/7 of the world's population) on 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²). Among the largest cities of the Indo-Gangetic plain are Karachi, Hyderabad, Multan, Islamabad,Rawalpindi, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E220s Laptop Keyboard
Faisalabad, Lahore, Amritsar, Bathinda, Jammu, Jalandhar, Pathankot, Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jaipur,Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati and Dhaka.
Image:Hooghly.JPG|Boatmen row between Barrackpore and Serampore on the Hooghly river. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
A photograph shot in 2006 The Indus-Ganga plain is bound on the north by the abruptly rising Himalayas, which feed its numerous rivers and are the source of the fertile alluvium deposited across the region by the two river systems. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the west rises theIranian Plateau.
Some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts: the Indus Valley Plain, thePunjab Plain, the Haryana Plain, and the middle and lower Ganges Plains. These regional distinctions are based primarily on the availability of water. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
By another definition, the Indus-Ganga Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge; the western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part consists of the Ganga–Bramaputra drainage systems. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
This divide is only 300 metres above sea level, causing the perception that the Indus-Ganga Plain appears to be continuous between the two drainage basins.
Both the Punjab and Haryana plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers. The irrigation projects in progress on these rivers have led to a decrease in the flow of water, which reaches the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and the Indus Valley in ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard
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Pakistan. The benefits that the increased irrigation has brought to Haryana farmers are controversial due to the effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
The middle Ganga plain extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganges plain and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganga plain. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
The lower Ganga is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into Bangladesh. After joining the Jamuna, a distributary of Brahmaputra, both rivers form the Ganges Delta.
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, before crossing into Bangladesh. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
140 million years ago the Indian Plate formed part of the supercontinent Gondwana together with modern Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and South America. Gondwana broke up as these continents drifted apart with different velocities,[7] a process which led to the opening of the Indian Ocean.[8] HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
In the late Cretaceous about 90 million years ago, subsequent to the splitting off from Gondwana of conjoined Madagascar andIndia, the Indian Plate split from Madagascar. It began moving north, at about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) per year,[7] and is believed to have begun colliding with Asia between 55 and 50 million years ago,[9] HP G61-420SL laptop keyboard
in the Eocene epoch of the Cenozoic, although this is contested, with some authors suggesting it was much later at around 35 million years ago.[10] If the collision occurred between 55 and 50 Ma, the Indian Plate would have covered a distance of 3,000 to 2,000 kilometres (1,900 to 1,200 mi), moving faster than any other known plate. TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 laptop keyboard
In 2012, paleomagnetic data from the Greater Himalaya was used to propose two collisions to reconcile the discrepancy between the amount of crustal shortening in the Himalaya (~1300 km) and the amount of convergence between India and Asia (~3600 km).[11] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
These authors propose a continental fragment of northern Gondwana rifted from India, traveled northward, and initiated the "soft collision" between the Greater Himalaya and Asia at ~50 Ma. This was followed by the "hard collision" between India and Asia occurred at ~25 Ma. HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa laptop keyboard
Subduction of the resulting ocean basin that formed between the Greater Himalayan fragment and India explains the apparent discrepancy between the crustal shortening estimates in the Himalaya and paleomagnetic data from India and Asia. ACER Aspire One D250-1151 laptop keyboard
In 2007, German geologists[7] suggested that the reason the Indian Plate moved so quickly is that it is only half as thick (100 kilometres or 62 miles) as the other plates[12] which formerly constituted Gondwana. SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
The mantle plume that once broke up Gondwana might also have melted the lower part of the Indian subcontinent, which allowed it to move both faster and further than the other parts.[7] The remains of this plume today form the Marion, Kerguelen, SONY Vaio VGN-AW160J/Q laptop keyboard
and Réunion hotspots.[8] As India moved north, it is possible that the thickness of the Indian plate degenerated further as it passed over the hotspots and magmatic extrusions associated with the Deccan and Rajmahal Traps.[8] HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard
The massive amounts of volcanic gases released during the passage of the Indian Plate over the hotspots have been theorised to have played a role in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, generally held to be due to a large asteroid impact.[13] Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the boundary between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and theHimalaya Mountains, as sediment bunched up like earth before a plow. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
The Indian Plate is currently moving north-east at 5 centimetres (2.0 in) per year, while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 centimetres (0.79 in) per year. This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the India Plate to compress at a rate of 4 millimetres (0.16 in) per year. SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
The mountain is known as Kailāsa (कैलास) in Sanskrit.[1][2] The word may be derived from the word kēlāsa (केलास) which means "crystal".[3] In his Tibetan-English dictionary, Chandra (1902: p. 32) identifies the entry for 'kai la sha' (Tibetan: ཀཻ་ལ་ཤ, Wylie: kai la sha) which is a loan word from Sanskrit 'kailāsa' (Devanagari: कैलास).[4] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
The Tibetan name for the mountain is Gangs Rin-po-che. Gangs or Kang is the Tibetan word for snow peak analogous to alp or himal; rinpoche is an honorific meaning "precious one" so the combined term can be translated "precious jewel of snows".SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
"Tibetan Buddhists call it Kangri Rinpoche; 'Precious Snow Mountain'. Bon texts have many names: Water's Flower, Mountain of Sea Water, Nine Stacked Swastika Mountain. For Hindus, it is the home of the mountain god Shiva and a symbol of his power symbol om; HP Pavilion dv6-3217cl laptop keyboard
for Jains it is where their first leader was enlightened; for Buddhists, the navel of the universe; and for adherents of Bon, the abode of the sky goddess Sipaimen."[5]
Another local name for the mountain is Tisé (Tibetan: ཏི་སེ་) mountain, SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard
which derives from ti tse in the Zhang-Zhung language, meaning "water peak" or "river peak", connoting the mountain's status as the source of the mythical Lion, Horse, Peacock and Elephant Rivers, and in fact the Indus, Yarlung Tsangpo/Dihang/Brahmaputra, Karnali and Sutlej all begin in the Kailash-Lake Manassarovar region.[6] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
According to Hinduism, Lord Shiva, the destroyer of ignorance and illusion, resides at the summit of a legendary mountain named Kailās, where he sits in a state of perpetual meditation along with his wife Pārvatī. Compaq Presario CQ56-105TU laptop keyboard
According to Charles Allen, one description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made ofcrystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli.[7] It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.[7] ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
The ancient Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee is heralded as "Dakshina Kailasam" (Kailash of the South) it lies on exactly the same longitude as Mount Kailash. Many of the Kailasanath temple's sculptures and relics depict episodes relating to Lord Shiva and Maa Parvati, including Ravana's tale. (Ravana was a devotee of Lord Shiva. HP 431416-001 Laptop Keyboard
Ramayana does not document Ravana shaking the mountain.) Ravana's mother had fallen ill. As they were great Lord Shiva devotees, he had attempted to carry the temple on his back to bring it closer to his mother. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
[8]
Tantric Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the home of the Buddha Demchok (also known as Demchog orChakrasamvara),[11] who represents supreme bliss.
There are numerous sites in the region associated with Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava), whose tantric practices in holy sites around Tibet are credited with finally establishing Buddhism as the main religion of the country in the 7th–8th century CE.[12] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
It is said that Milarepa (c. 1052-c. 1135 CE), champion of Tantric Buddhism, arrived in Tibet to challenge Naro Bön-chung, champion of the Bön religion of Tibet. The two magicians engaged in a terrifying sorcerers' battle, but neither was able to gain a decisive advantage. Finally, it was agreed that whoever could reach the summit of Kailash SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D Laptop Keyboard
most rapidly would be the victor. While Naro Bön-chung sat on a magic drum and soared up the slope, Milarepa's followers were dumbfounded to see him sitting still and meditating. Yet when Naro Bön-chung was nearly at the top, Milarepa suddenly moved into action and overtook him by riding on the rays of the sun, thus winning the contest. TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 Laptop Keyboard
He did, however, fling a handful of snow on to the top of a nearby mountain, since known as Bönri, bequeathing it to the Bönpo and thereby ensuring continued Bönpo connections with the region.[13] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
Some pilgrims believe that the entire walk around Kailash should be made in a single day, which is not considered an easy task. A person in good shape walking fast would take perhaps 15 hours to complete the 52 km trek. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard
Some of the devout do accomplish this feat, little daunted by the uneven terrain, altitude sickness and harsh conditions faced in the process. Indeed, other pilgrims venture a much more demanding regimen, performing body-length prostrations over the entire length of the circumambulation: The pilgrim bends down, kneels, prostrates full-length, HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
makes a mark with his fingers, rises to his knees, prays, and then crawls forward on hands and knees to the mark made by his/her fingers before repeating the process. It requires at least four weeks of physical endurance to perform the circumambulation while following this regimen. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The mountain is located in a particularly remote and inhospitable area of the Tibetan Himalayas. A few modern amenities, such as benches, resting places and refreshment kiosks, exist to aid the pilgrims in their devotions. TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
According to all religions that revere the mountain, setting foot on its slopes is a dire sin. It is claimed that many people who ventured to defy the taboo have died in the process[citation needed]. It is a popular belief that the stairways on Mount Kailash lead to heaven. Following the political and border disturbances across the Chinese-Indian boundary, COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard
pilgrimage to the legendary abode of Lord Shiva was stopped from 1954 to 1978. Thereafter, a limited number of Indian pilgrims have been allowed to visit the place, under the supervision of the Chinese and Indian governments either by a lengthy and hazardous trek over the Himalayan terrain, HP Mini 110-3001ev laptop keyboard
travel by land from Kathmandu or from Lhasa where flights from Kathmandu are available to Lhasa and thereafter travel over the great Tibetan plateau by car. The journey takes four night stops, finally arriving at Darchen at elevation of 4,600 m (15,100 ft), Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
small outpost that swells with pilgrims at certain times of year. Despite its minimal infrastructure, modest guest houses are available for foreign pilgrims, whereas Tibetan pilgrims generally sleep in their own tents. A small regional medical center serving far-western Tibet and funded by the Swiss Ngari Korsum Foundation was built here in 1997. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
Walking around the holy mountain—a part of its official park—has to be done on foot, pony or yak, taking some three days of trekking starting from a height of around 15,000 ft (4,600 m) past the Tarboche (flagpole) to cross the Drölma pass 18,200 ft (5,500 m), SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
and encamping for two nights en route. First, near the meadow of Dirapuk gompa, some 2 to 3 km (1.2 to 1.9 mi) before the pass and second, after crossing the pass and going downhill as far as possible (viewing Gauri Kund in the distance). SONY VAIO PCG-FR215H laptop keyboard
Although Mount Kailash has never been climbed, mountaineers have prospected the mountain with a view to it. In 1926,Hugh Ruttledge studied the north face, which he estimated was 6,000 ft (1,800 m) high and "utterly unclimbable"[18] IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
and thought about an ascent of the northeast ridge, but he ran out of time. Ruttledge had been exploring the area with Colonel R. C. Wilson, who was on the other side of the mountain with his Sherpa named Satan. According to Wilson, Satan told Wilson, "'Sahib, we can climb that!' ... SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
as he too saw that this [the SE ridge] represented a feasible route to the summit."[19] Further excerpts from Wilson's article in the Alpine Journal (vol. 40, 1928) show that he was serious about climbing Kailash, but he also ran out of time. HP 6530S laptop keyboard
Herbert Tichy was in the area in 1936, attempting to climb Gurla Mandhata. When he asked one of the Garpons of Ngari whether Kailash was climbable, the Garpon replied, "Only a man entirely free of sin could climb Kailas. And he wouldn't have to actually scale the sheer walls of ice to do it – he'd just turn himself into a bird and fly to the summit."[20] HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee laptop keyboard
TOSHIBA Satellite L355-S7812 laptop keyboard
Reinhold Messner was given the opportunity by the Chinese government to climb in the mid-1980s but he declined.[21] In 2001 the Chinese gave permission for a Spanish team to climb the peak, but in the face of international disapproval the Chinese decided to ban all attempts to climb the mountain.[22] Messner, referring to the Spanish plans, ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
said, "If we conquer this mountain, then we conquer something in people's souls ... I would suggest they go and climb something a little harder. Kailash is not so high and not so hard."[21] Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
A drainage basin or watershed (North American English usages) is an extent or an area of land wheresurface water from rain and melting snow or ice converges to a single point at a lower elevation, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as a river, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
lake, reservoir, estuary,wetland, sea, or ocean. For example, a tributary stream of a brook which joins a small river, which is tributary of a larger river is thus part of a series of successively smaller area but higher elevation drainage basins (watersheds). HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
Similarly, the Missouri and American rivers are each part of their own drainage basins/watersheds and that of the Mississippi River.
Other terms that are used to describe a drainage basin are catchment, catchment area, catchment basin,drainage area, river basin and water basin.[1] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
n North America, the term watershed is commonly used to mean a drainage basin (though in other English-speaking countries, it is used only in its original sense, to mean a drainage divide[2]), the one meaning an area, the other its high elevation perimeter of that area. Drainage basins drain into other drainage basins in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins combining into larger drainage basins.[3] HP G61-423EO laptop keyboard
In closed drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake, dry lake, or a point where surface water is lost underground.[4] HP AETT3U00010 laptop keyboard
The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as well as the land surfaces from which water drains into those channels, and is separated from adjacent basins by a drainage divide.[5] SONY VAIO VGN-CR220E laptop keyboard
The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin and channelling it to a single point. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, SAMSUNG R20 Laptop Keyboard
the drainage divide or watershed (outside North America) making up a succession of higher geographical features (such as a ridge, hill or mountains) forming a barrier.
Drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
Hydrologic units are designed to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks. In a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins.[4]
The United States Environmental Protection Agency launched the website Watershed Central for the US public to exchange information and locate resources needed to restore local drainage basins in their country. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
Endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks. The largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard
the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Other endorheic regions include the Great Basin in the United States, much of the Sahara Desert, the watershed of the Okavango River (Kalahari Basin), DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard
highlands near the African Great Lakes, the interiors of Australia and the Arabian Peninsula, and parts in Mexico and the Andes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, adjacent closed basins. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
In endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example is the Dead Sea.
In hydrology, the drainage basin is a logical unit of focus for studying the movement of water within the hydrological cycle, ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard
because the majority of water that discharges from the basin outlet originated as precipitation falling on the basin. A portion of the water that enters the groundwater system beneath the drainage basin may flow towards the outlet of another drainage basin because groundwater flow directions do not always match those of their overlying drainage network. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
Measurement of the discharge of water from a basin may be made by a stream gauge located at the basin's outlet.
Rain gauge data is used to measure total precipitation over a drainage basin, and there are different ways to interpret that data. If the gauges are many and evenly distributed over an area of uniform precipitation, using the arithmetic mean method will give good results. HP Pavilion DV7-4100 Laptop Keyboard
In the Thiessen polygon method, the watershed is divided into polygons with the rain gauge in the middle of each polygon assumed to be representative for the rainfall on the area of land included in its polygon. These polygons are made by drawing lines between gauges, then making perpendicular bisectors of those lines form the polygons. ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
The isohyetal method involves contours of equal precipitation are drawn over the gauges on a map. Calculating the area between these curves and adding up the volume of water is time consuming. TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard
Isochrone maps can be used to show the time taken for runoff water within a drainage basin to reach a lake, reservoir or outlet, assuming constant and uniform effective rainfall.[7][8][9][10]
The Eurasian Plate is a tectonic plate which includes most of the continent of Eurasia (a landmass consisting of the traditional continents of Europe and Asia), HP Pavilion DV6-1103ax Laptop Keyboard
with the notable exceptions of the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian subcontinent, and the area east of the Chersky Range in East Siberia. It also includes oceanic crust extending westward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and northward to the Gakkel Ridge. HP Pavilion ze4325 Laptop Keyboard
The eastern side is a boundary with the North American Plate to the north and a boundary with thePhilippine Sea Plate to the south, and possibly with the Okhotsk Plate and the Amurian Plate. The southerly side is a boundary with the African Plate to the west, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
the Arabian Plate in the middle and the Indo-Australian Plate to the east. The westerly side is a divergent boundary with the North American Plate forming the northernmost part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is straddled by Iceland. The 1973 eruption of Eldfell, the volcano of the Icelandic island Heimaey, caused by the North American and the Eurasian plates moving apart, is a result of divergent plate boundary forces. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The geodynamics of central Asia is dominated by the interaction between the North Eurasia and India Plates. In this area, many subplates or crust blocks have been recognized. These subplates or crust blocks form the Central Asian transit zone and the East Asian transit zone.[1] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
The history of organised European colonisation on the islands began when the Danish settlers of the Danish East India Company arrived in the Nicobar Islands on 12 December 1755. On 1 January 1756, the Nicobar Islands were made a Danish colony, first named New Denmark,[8] HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard
and later (December 1756) Frederick's Islands (Frederiksøerne). During 1754–1756 they were administrated from Tranquebar (in continentalDanish India). The islands were repeatedly abandoned due to outbreaks of malaria between 14 April 1759 and 19 August 1768, from 1787 to 1807/05, 1814 to 1831, 1830 to 1834 and gradually from 1848 for good.[8] DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard
From 1 June 1778 to 1784, Austria mistakenly assumed that Denmark had abandoned its claims to the Nicobar Islands and attempted to establish a colony on them,[9] renaming them Theresia Islands.[8] HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
In 1789 the British set up a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island next to Great Andaman, where now lies the town of Port Blair. Two years later the colony was moved to Port Cornwallis on Great Andaman, but it was abandoned in 1796 due to disease. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Denmark's presence in the territory ended formally on 16 October 1868 when it sold the rights to the Nicobar Islands to Britain,[9] which made them part ofBritish India in 1869.
In 1858 the British again established a colony at Port Blair, which proved to be more permanent. The primary purpose was to set up a penal colony for dissenters and independence fighters from the Indian subcontinent. The colony came to include the infamous Cellular Jail. HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard
In 1872 the Andaman and Nicobar islands were united under a single chief commissioner at Port Blair.
During World War II, the islands were practically under Japanese control, only nominally under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind of NetajiSubhas Chandra Bose. Bose visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as "Shaheed-dweep" (Martyr Island) and "Swaraj-dweep" (Self-rule Island). DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army was made the Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. On 22 February 1944 he along with four INA officers — Major Mansoor Ali Alvi, Sub. Lt. Md. Iqbal, Lt. Suba Singh and stenographer Srinivasan—arrived at Lambaline Airport in Port Blair. On 21 March 1944 the Headquarters of the HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
Civil Administration was established near the Gurudwara at Aberdeen Bazaar. On 2 October 1944, Col. Loganathan handed over the charge to Maj. Alvi and left Port Blair, never to return.[10] The islands were reoccupied by British and Indian troops of the 116th Indian Infantry Brigade on 7 October 1945, to whom the remaining Japanese garrison surrendered. DELL V109002CS1 Laptop Keyboard
On 26 December 2004 the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were devastated by a 10 m (33 ft) high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. More than 2,000 people were confirmed dead, more than 4,000 children were orphaned or suffered the loss of one parent, and a minimum of 40,000 people were rendered homeless.[12] SONY 148084721 Laptop Keyboard
The worst affected Nicobar islands were Katchal and Indira Point; the latter subsided 4.25 metres and was partially submerged in the ocean. The lighthouse at Indira Point was damaged but has been repaired since then. The territory lost a large amount of area which is now submerged. The territory which was at 8,073 km2 (3,117 sq mi) is now merely at 7,950 km2 (3,070 sq mi). HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
While newer settlers of the islands suffered the greatest casualties from the tsunami, most of the aboriginal people survived because oral traditions passed down from generations ago warned them to evacuate from large waves that follow large earthquakes.[13] SONY 148084721 Laptop Keyboard
Geography
There are 572 islands in the territory having an area of 7,950 km2 (3,070 sq mi). Of these, about 34 are permanently inhabited. The islands extend from 6° to 14° North latitudes and from 92° to 94° East longitudes. The Andamans are separated from the Nicobar group by a channel (the Ten Degree Channel) some 150 km (93 mi) wide. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 laptop keyboard
The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at 732 m (2,402 ft)). The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 24 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi).[11]:33SONY 147998121 laptop keyboard
The capital of the union territory, Port Blair, is located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata, 1,200 km (750 mi) fromVisakhapatnam and 1,190 km (740 mi) from Chennai.[11]:33 The northernmost point of the Andaman and Nicobars group is 901 km (560 mi) away from the mouth of the Hooghly River and 190 km (120 mi) from Burma. Indira Point at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″HP Pavilion DV7-2206tx laptop keyboard
E at the southern tip of the southernmost island, Great Nicobar, is the southernmost point of India and lies only 150 km (93 mi) from Sumatra in Indonesia.
The Tibetan Plateau is bounded on the north by a broad escarpment where the altitude drops from around 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) in less than 150 kilometres (93 mi). HP Pavilion DV7-3100 laptop keyboard
Along the escarpment is a range of mountains. In the west the Kunlun Mountains separate the plateau from the Tarim Basin. About half way across the Tarim the bounding range becomes the Altyn-Tagh and the Kunluns, by convention, continue somewhat to the south. In the 'V' formed by this split is the western part of the Qaidam Basin. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
The Altyn-Tagh ends near the Dangjin pass on theDunhuang-Golmud road. To the west are short ranges called the Danghe, Yema, Shule and Tulai Nanshans. HP NSK-H8N01-US laptop keyboard
The easternmost range is the Qilian Mountains. The line of mountains continues east of the plateau as the Qin Mountains which separate the Ordos Region from Sichuan. North of the mountains runs the Gansu or Hexi Corridor which was the main silk-road route from China proper to the west. HP NSK-H8N01-US laptop keyboard
The plateau is a high-altitude arid steppe interspersed with mountain ranges and large brackish lakes. Annual precipitation ranges from 100 to 300 millimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) and falls mainly as hailstorms. The southern and eastern edges of the steppe have grasslands which can sustainably support populations of nomadic herdsmen, TOSHIBA NSK-T4D01 laptop keyboard
although frost occurs for six months of the year. Permafrost occurs over extensive parts of the plateau. Proceeding to the north and northwest, the plateau becomes progressively higher, colder and drier, until reaching the remote Changthang region in the northwestern part of the plateau. Here the average altitude exceeds 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) TOSHIBA P205-S6257 laptop keyboard
and winter temperatures can drop to −40 °C (−40 °F). As a result of this extremely inhospitable environment, the Changthang region (together with the adjoining Kekexili region) is the least populous region in Asia, and the third least populous area in the world afterAntarctica and northern Greenland. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
The Himalayas are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary andmetamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm per year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, TOSHIBA P205-S6257 laptop keyboard
the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards, the plateau is still rising about 5 mm per year. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
Monsoons are caused by the larger amplitude of the seasonal cycle of land temperature compared to that of nearby oceans. This differential warming happens because heat in the ocean is mixed vertically through a "mixed layer" that may be fifty meters deep, through the action of wind and buoyancy-generated turbulence, whereas the land surface conducts heat slowly, SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
with the seasonal signal penetrating perhaps a meter or so. Additionally, the specific heat capacity of liquid water is significantly higher than that of most materials that make up land. Together, these factors mean that the heat capacity of the layer participating in the seasonal cycle is much larger over the oceans than over land, ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
with the consequence that the air over the land warms faster and reaches a higher temperature than the air over the ocean.[15] The hot air over the land tends to rise, creating an area of low pressure. This creates a steady wind blowing toward the land, bringing the moist near-surface air over the oceans with it. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
Similar rainfall is caused by the moist ocean air being lifted upwards by mountains, surface heating, convergence at the surface, divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows at the surface. However the lifting occurs, the air cools due expansion in lower pressure, which in turn produces condensation. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
In winter, the land cools off quickly, but the ocean keeps the heat longer. The hot air over the ocean rises, creating a low pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large area of drying high pressure is formed over the land, increased by wintertime cooling.[15] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Monsoons are similar to sea and land breezes, a term usually referring to the localized, diurnal (daily) cycle of circulation near coastlines everywhere, but they are much larger in scale, stronger and seasonal.[16] The seasonal monsoon wind shift and weather associated with the heating and cooling of the Tibetan plateau is the strongest such monsoon on Earth. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during the Last Ice Age a c. 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) ice sheet covered the plateau.[17][18][19] Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element of climate forcing. With a much lower latitude, HP Pavilion ze4325 Laptop Keyboard
the ice in Tibet reflected at least 4 times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher latitudes. Thus, what at present adds heat to the atmosphere subtracted it instead.[20]
This cooling had multiple effects on regional climate. Without the thermal low caused by the heating, there was nomonsoon over the Indian subcontinent. HP Pavilion DV6-1103ax Laptop Keyboard
This lack of monsoon caused extensive rainfall over the Sahara desert, expansion of the Thar desert, more dust deposited into the Arabian Sea, and a lowering of the biotic life zones on the Indian subcontinent. Animals responded to this shift in climate, with the Javan Rusa deer migrating into India.[21] TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard
In addition, the glaciers in Tibet created meltwater lakes in the Qaidam Basin, the Tarim Basin and the Gobi Desert, despite the strong evaporation caused by the low latitude. Silt and clay from the glaciers accumulated in these lakes: ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
when the lakes dried at the end of the ice age, the silt and clay were blown by the downslope wind off the Plateau. These airborne fine grains produced the enormous amount of loess in the Chinese lowlands.[21] HP Pavilion DV7-4100 Laptop Keyboard
Since the end of the ice age, Tibet has risen at approximately 10 millimetres (0.39 in) per year, at the same rate as the Himalaya. While the Himalaya rise can be explained by plate tectonics, the rise of Tibet can be explained as the isostatic rebound of the crust rising after the weight of the ice was removed. The amount of isostatic rebound since the last ice age is approximately 650 metres (2,130 ft).[19] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
The geographical definition of the Indian subcontinent varies. Historically forming the whole territory of Greater India, now it generally comprises the countries of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh;[1] ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard
prior to 1947, the three nations were historically combined and constituted British India. It almost always also includes Nepal, Bhutan and the island country of Sri Lanka,[2][3] and may also include Afghanistan and the island country of Maldives.[4][5][6] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The region may also include the disputed territory of Aksai Chin, which was part of the British Indian princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, but is now administered as part of the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang.[7] A booklet published by the United States Department of State in 1959 includes Afghanistan, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
India, Nepal, and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, now Bangladesh) as part of the "Subcontinent of South Asia".[8] When the term Indian subcontinent is used to mean South Asia, the island countries of Sri Lanka and the Maldives may sometimes not be included,[4] while Tibet and Nepal may be included[9] or excluded[10] intermittently, depending on the context. HP Mini 110-3107sa laptop keyboard
As there is a lack or no coherent definition for Indian subcontinent or South Asia (see the article South Asia for multiple definitions), the terms "Indian subcontinent" and "South Asia" are used interchangeably by some due to political reasons.[4][11][12][13][14] HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
In Religions of South Asia, Sushil Mittal and Gene R. Thursby state that the Indian subcontinent and South Asia refer to the same area.[15] Due to political sensitivities, some prefer to use the terms "South Asian subcontinent",[16][16][17] the "Indo-Pak-Bangladesh subcontinent",[18] SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard
the "Indo-Pak subcontinent",[19] "the subcontinent", or simply "South Asia"[20] over the term "Indian subcontinent". Historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal hold the view that the Indian subcontinent has come to be known as South Asia "in more recent and neutral parlance."[20] though their view is not acceptable to many. Indologist Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
Ronald B. Inden argues that the usage of the term "South Asia" is getting more widespread since it clearly distinguishes the region from East Asia.[21] Some academics hold that the term "South Asia" is in more common use in Europe and North America, rather than the terms "subcontinent" or the "Indian subcontinent".[22][23] Acer eMachines G730Z laptop keyboard
According to political science professor Tatu Vanhanen, "The seven countries of South Asia constitute geographically a compact region around the Indian Subcontinent";[24] while according to anthropologist John R. Lukacs, "The Indian Subcontinent occupies the major landmass of South Asia."[25] According to Chris Brewster, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan constitute the Indian subcontinent; with Afghanistan, Iran and Maldives included it is more commonly referred to as South Asia.[26] While using both terms to mean the same region in Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia Dr. William Gould of University of Leeds explains that "South Asia" is a geopolitical as well as a geographical term.[27] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Geographically, the Indian subcontinent is a peninsular region in south-central Asia, delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east,[28] and extending southward into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast.[1][4] TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5153 laptop keyboard
Most of this region rests on the Indian Plate and is isolated from the rest of Asia by mountain barriers.[29][30] The Indian Plate includes most of South Asia, forming a land mass which extends from the Himalayas into a portion of the basin under the Indian Ocean, including parts of South China and Eastern Indonesia, as well as Kuen Lun and Karakoram ranges,[31][32][33] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-300SB laptop keyboard
and extending up to but not including Ladakh, Kohistan, the Hindu Kushrange and Balochistan.[34][35][36]
Using a more expansive definition – counting India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives as the constituent countries – the Indian subcontinent covers about 4.4 million km² (1.7 million mi²),HP Pavilion dv5-1118tx laptop keyboard
which is 10% of the Asian continent or 3.3% of the world's land surface area.[37][38] Overall, it accounts for about 45% of Asia's population (or over 25% of the world's population) and is home to a vast array of peoples.[37][39][38] HP Pavilion dv6-3017tu laptop keyboard
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HP Pavilion ze4325 laptop keyboard
The Himalayas, or Himalaya, (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə/ or /hɪˈmɑːləjə/; Sanskrit, hima (snow) + ālaya (dwelling), literally, "abode of the snow"[1]) is a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayan range is home to the planet's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. The Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres (23,600 ft) in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres (22,838 ft) tall.[2] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia. Many Himalayan peaks are sacred in both Buddhism and Hinduism.
Besides the Greater Himalayas of these high peaks there are parallel lower ranges. The first foothills, reaching about a thousand meters along the northern edge of the plains, are called the Sivalik Hills or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north is a higher range reaching two to three thousand meters known as the Lower Himalayan or Mahabharat Range. HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas abut or cross six countries: Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan, with the first three countries having sovereignty over most of the range.[3] The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by theIndo-Gangetic Plain. ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
Three of the world's major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, all rise near Mount Kailash and cross and encircle the Himalayas. Their combined drainage basin is home to some 600 million people. HP Pavilion DV6-1020el Laptop Keyboard
Lifted by the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate,[4] the Himalayan range runs, west-northwest to east-southeast, in an arc 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) long. Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river, its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river. TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
The range varies in width from 400 kilometres (250 mi) in the west to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in the east.
The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 Laptop Keyboard
The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. For example the extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure) combined with extreme cold allow extremophile organisms to survive.[5] ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard
The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature may shift various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard
There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially rhododendron, apple and Myrica esculenta. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres (16,080 ft) in Southeastern Tibet.[6] HP G62-a10EO Laptop Keyboard
The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary andmetamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, SONY VAIO VGN-SZ160P/C Laptop Keyboard
their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate was moving at about 15 cm per year. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, ACER Ferrari 1100 Laptop Keyboard
and the volcanoesthat fringed its edges. Since both plates were composed of low density continental crust, they were thrust faulted andfolded into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the mantle along an oceanic trench.[4] An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.[7] DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards. The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west.[8] In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 metres (3,300–6,600 Dell Inspiron 2500 Laptop Keyboard
ft).[8][9] While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20 to 32 kilometres (12 to 20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60 to 112 kilometres (37 to 70 mi) long during the ice age.[8] The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 metres (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least 7.0 to 8.3 °C (12.6 to 14.9 °F) colder than it is today.[10] SONY VAIO PCG-F520 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas have the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and the Arctic.[11] The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 (3000 cubic miles) of fresh water.[12]Its glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region), and Zemu(Sikkim).
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[13] In contrast, equatorial mountains in New Guinea, the Rwenzoris andColombia have a snow line some 900 metres (2,950 ft) lower.[14] The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems: SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
The easternmost Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south throughMyanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea.
The Salween, Mekong, Yangtze and Huang He (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains, and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. GATEWAY MG2 laptop keyboard
Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the circum-Himalayan rivers.[16] In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of global climate change.[17] For example, Lenovo ThinkPad T510-4314 laptop keyboard
Glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers of northern India during the dry seasons.[18] ACER TravelMate 3010 laptop keyboard
Some of the lakes present a danger of a glacial lake outburst flood. The Tsho Rolpa glacier lake in the Rolwaling Valley is rated as the most dangerous in Nepal.[19][20]
The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see also Highest unclimbed mountain). COMPAQ Presario V3628TU laptop keyboard
A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominence or re-ascent (the higher summit is called the "parent peak"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
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approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, like the Eiger orNuptse. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included but not numbered in this list. HP G61-420SL Laptop Keyboard
It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
As an extreme example, Ulugh Muztagh on the north Tibetan Plateau is often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by > 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements of Mount Everest range from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,850 m (29,035 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, because synthetic aperture radar can and has been used to measure altitudes of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights and/or prominences may be revised, TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
so that the order of the list may change and even "new" mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all >7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks.
The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butMount McKinley, SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration Mauna Kea (4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and volcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the Pacific Ocean floor. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Ojos del Salado has the greatest rise on Earth—13,420 m (44,029 ft) from the summit[citation needed] to the bottom of the Atacama Trench about 560 km (350 mi) away, though most of this rise is not part of the mountain. SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa (4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 2,000 sq mi or 5,200 km2) and volume (about 10,000 cu mi or 42,000 km3), although, SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
due to the intergrade of lava from Kilauea, Hualalai and Mauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice). Mt. Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (245 sq mi or 635 km2) DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
and volume (1,150 cu mi or 4,793 km3). Mount Logan is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (120 sq mi or 311 km2).
The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán, is another contender.[1] Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km less than that of Everest. FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard
Most mountains in the list are located in the Himalaya and Karakoram ranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. In fact, all 7,000 m (23,000 ft) peaks in the world are located in the centre of Asia (East Asia,Central Asia and South Asia) in a rectangle edged by Noshaq COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on the Afghanistan-Pakistanborder in the West, Jengish Chokusu, (Tuōmù'ěr Fēng) (7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on the Kyrgyzstan – Xinjiang border to the North, Gongga Shan (Minya Konka) (7,556 m or 24,790 ft) in Sichuan to the East, and Kabru (7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on the Sikkim (India) – Nepal border to the South. SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard
The highest mountain outside of Asia is Aconcagua (6,962 m or 22,841 ft), which one list has ranking 189th in the world amongst mountains with a 500 m or 1,640 ft prominence cutoff. [2]
The locations of the highest mountains are shown on the composite satellite image of High Asia below. The numbers refer to the ranking in the list. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
For clarity, lower peaks with labels overlapping higher peaks are left out of the main image. The boxed regions are those with the highest density of summits and are enlarged in two separate images to show all peaks. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M laptop keyboard
The Sivalik hills are the southernmost and geologically youngest east-west mountain chain of theHimalayas. The Siwaliks have many sub-ranges. They extend west from Arunachal Pradesh through Bhutanto West Bengal, Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
and further westward through Nepal and Uttarakhand, continuing into Himachal Pradeshand Kashmir. The hills are cut through at wide intervals by numerous large rivers flowing south from the Himalayas. SONY VAIO VGN-CR24G laptop keyboard
Smaller rivers without sources in the high Himalayas are more likely to detour around sub-ranges. Southern slopes have networks of small rills and channels, giving rise to ephemeral streams during the monsoon and into the post-monsoon season until groundwater supplies are depleted.[citation needed] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The Sivalik hills are chiefly composed of sandstone and conglomerate rock formations, which are the solidified detritus of the great range in their rear, but often poorly consolidated. The remnant magnetization of siltstonesand sandstones suggests a depositional age of 16-5.2 million years with Karnali River exposing the oldest part of the Siwalik Group in Nepal.[3] HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
They are bounded on the south by a fault system called the Main Frontal Thrust, with steeper slopes on that side. Below this, the coarse alluvial Bhabhar zone makes the transition to the nearly level plains. Rainfall, especially during the summermonsoon, ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
percolates into the bhabar, then is forced to the surface by finer alluvial layers below it in a zone of springs and marshes along the northern edge of the Terai or plains. This wet zone was heavily malarial infested before DDT was used to suppress mosquitoes. HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
It was left forested by official decree by Nepal's Rana rulers as a defensive perimeter called Char Kose Jhadi (four kos forest, one kos equalling about three km or two miles). Upslope, the permeable geology together with temperatures routinely exceeding 40° Celsius throughout April and May only supports a low, sparse, drought-tolerant scrub forest.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-2150ek laptop keyboard
North of the Siwalik belt the 1,500-3,000 meter Lesser Himalayas also known as the Mahabharat Range rises steeply along fault lines. In many places the two ranges are adjacent but in other places structural valleys 10–20 km wide separate them. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
These valleys are called Duns or Doons in India, which includes Dehradun, Patli Dun and Kothri Dun, both in Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, and also Pinjore Dun in Himachal Pradesh. In Nepal, these valleys are called Inner Terai and include Chitwan, Dang-Deukhuri and Surkhet.[citation needed] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-JS03UK laptop keyboard
The Mahabharat Range (Nepali: महाभारत श्रृंखला mahābhārat shrinkhalā) – also called the Lesser Himalaya – is a major east-west mountain range with elevations 1,500 to 2,700 m (5,000 to 9,000 feet) along the crest, paralleling the much higher Great Himalaya range from the Indus River in Pakistanacross northern India, Nepal, Packard Bell Easynote TK87 laptop keyboard
Sikkim and Bhutan but then the two ranges become increasingly difficult to differentiate east of Bhutan as the ranges approach the Brahmaputra River. The Mahabharat range also parallels the lower Shivalik or Churia Range (Outer Himalaya) to the south. HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
Southern slopes of the Mahabharat Range are steep and nearly uninhabited due to a major fault system called the 'Main Boundary Thrust". The crest and northern slopes slope gently enough to support upland pastures and terraced fields. Nepal's densely populated Middle Hills begin along the crest, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
extending north through lower valleys and other "hills" until population thins out above 2,000 m and cereal-based agriculture increasingly gives way to seasonal herding and cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes. HP Pavilion dv6-2105ew laptop keyboard
Most ethnic groups found along the Mahabharat Range and northward into the Middle Hills have Tibeto-Burman affinities including Nepalese origins of Newar,Magar, Gurung, Tamang, Rai and Limbu, however the most populous ethnic group is Indo-European Hindus called Paharis, TOSHIBA NSK-TBA01 laptop keyboard
mainly of the upper Brahman andKshatriya or Chhetri castes. Lower terrain south of the escarpment was historically malarial and inhabited by apparently aboriginal peoples with evolved immunity, notably the Tharu. ASUS A8M laptop keyboard
The Mahabharat Range is an important hydrographic barrier crossed by relatively few rivers. Drainage systems have evolved candelabra configurations with numerous tributaries flowing south from the Himalaya through the Middle Hills, HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard
gathering immediately north of the Mahabharat Range and cutting through in major gorges as the Karnali in the west, the Gandaki or Narayani in central Nepal, and the Kosi in the east. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
With temperatures persisting around forty degrees celsius in the plains of India from April until the onset of the summer monsoon in June, but ten to fifteen degrees cooler atop the Mahabharat Range, HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee Laptop Keyboard
Hill Stations were developed as alternate capitals and resorts for the hot season by India's Mughal andBritish rulers. There are no hill stations per se in Nepal, Sikkim or Bhutan since the capital cities are high enough to avoid extreme heat. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The Indus-Ganga Plain also known as The North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the most populous parts of Pakistan, parts of southern Nepal and virtually all ofBangladesh. The region is named after the Indus and the Ganga, the twin river systems that drain it. FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard
The plain's population density is very high due to the fertile soil for farming. The plains support one of the most populous areas on Earth, being home to nearly 1 billion people (or around 1/7 of the world's population) on 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²). Among the largest cities of the Indo-Gangetic plain are Karachi, Hyderabad, Multan, Islamabad,Rawalpindi, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E220s Laptop Keyboard
Faisalabad, Lahore, Amritsar, Bathinda, Jammu, Jalandhar, Pathankot, Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jaipur,Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati and Dhaka.
Image:Hooghly.JPG|Boatmen row between Barrackpore and Serampore on the Hooghly river. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
A photograph shot in 2006 The Indus-Ganga plain is bound on the north by the abruptly rising Himalayas, which feed its numerous rivers and are the source of the fertile alluvium deposited across the region by the two river systems. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the west rises theIranian Plateau.
Some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts: the Indus Valley Plain, thePunjab Plain, the Haryana Plain, and the middle and lower Ganges Plains. These regional distinctions are based primarily on the availability of water. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
By another definition, the Indus-Ganga Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge; the western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part consists of the Ganga–Bramaputra drainage systems. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
This divide is only 300 metres above sea level, causing the perception that the Indus-Ganga Plain appears to be continuous between the two drainage basins.
Both the Punjab and Haryana plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers. The irrigation projects in progress on these rivers have led to a decrease in the flow of water, which reaches the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and the Indus Valley in ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard
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Pakistan. The benefits that the increased irrigation has brought to Haryana farmers are controversial due to the effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
The middle Ganga plain extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganges plain and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganga plain. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
The lower Ganga is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into Bangladesh. After joining the Jamuna, a distributary of Brahmaputra, both rivers form the Ganges Delta.
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, before crossing into Bangladesh. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
140 million years ago the Indian Plate formed part of the supercontinent Gondwana together with modern Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and South America. Gondwana broke up as these continents drifted apart with different velocities,[7] a process which led to the opening of the Indian Ocean.[8] HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
In the late Cretaceous about 90 million years ago, subsequent to the splitting off from Gondwana of conjoined Madagascar andIndia, the Indian Plate split from Madagascar. It began moving north, at about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) per year,[7] and is believed to have begun colliding with Asia between 55 and 50 million years ago,[9] HP G61-420SL laptop keyboard
in the Eocene epoch of the Cenozoic, although this is contested, with some authors suggesting it was much later at around 35 million years ago.[10] If the collision occurred between 55 and 50 Ma, the Indian Plate would have covered a distance of 3,000 to 2,000 kilometres (1,900 to 1,200 mi), moving faster than any other known plate. TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 laptop keyboard
In 2012, paleomagnetic data from the Greater Himalaya was used to propose two collisions to reconcile the discrepancy between the amount of crustal shortening in the Himalaya (~1300 km) and the amount of convergence between India and Asia (~3600 km).[11] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
These authors propose a continental fragment of northern Gondwana rifted from India, traveled northward, and initiated the "soft collision" between the Greater Himalaya and Asia at ~50 Ma. This was followed by the "hard collision" between India and Asia occurred at ~25 Ma. HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa laptop keyboard
Subduction of the resulting ocean basin that formed between the Greater Himalayan fragment and India explains the apparent discrepancy between the crustal shortening estimates in the Himalaya and paleomagnetic data from India and Asia. ACER Aspire One D250-1151 laptop keyboard
In 2007, German geologists[7] suggested that the reason the Indian Plate moved so quickly is that it is only half as thick (100 kilometres or 62 miles) as the other plates[12] which formerly constituted Gondwana. SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
The mantle plume that once broke up Gondwana might also have melted the lower part of the Indian subcontinent, which allowed it to move both faster and further than the other parts.[7] The remains of this plume today form the Marion, Kerguelen, SONY Vaio VGN-AW160J/Q laptop keyboard
and Réunion hotspots.[8] As India moved north, it is possible that the thickness of the Indian plate degenerated further as it passed over the hotspots and magmatic extrusions associated with the Deccan and Rajmahal Traps.[8] HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard
The massive amounts of volcanic gases released during the passage of the Indian Plate over the hotspots have been theorised to have played a role in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, generally held to be due to a large asteroid impact.[13] Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the boundary between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and theHimalaya Mountains, as sediment bunched up like earth before a plow. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
The Indian Plate is currently moving north-east at 5 centimetres (2.0 in) per year, while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 centimetres (0.79 in) per year. This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the India Plate to compress at a rate of 4 millimetres (0.16 in) per year. SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
The mountain is known as Kailāsa (कैलास) in Sanskrit.[1][2] The word may be derived from the word kēlāsa (केलास) which means "crystal".[3] In his Tibetan-English dictionary, Chandra (1902: p. 32) identifies the entry for 'kai la sha' (Tibetan: ཀཻ་ལ་ཤ, Wylie: kai la sha) which is a loan word from Sanskrit 'kailāsa' (Devanagari: कैलास).[4] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard
The Tibetan name for the mountain is Gangs Rin-po-che. Gangs or Kang is the Tibetan word for snow peak analogous to alp or himal; rinpoche is an honorific meaning "precious one" so the combined term can be translated "precious jewel of snows".SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard
"Tibetan Buddhists call it Kangri Rinpoche; 'Precious Snow Mountain'. Bon texts have many names: Water's Flower, Mountain of Sea Water, Nine Stacked Swastika Mountain. For Hindus, it is the home of the mountain god Shiva and a symbol of his power symbol om; HP Pavilion dv6-3217cl laptop keyboard
for Jains it is where their first leader was enlightened; for Buddhists, the navel of the universe; and for adherents of Bon, the abode of the sky goddess Sipaimen."[5]
Another local name for the mountain is Tisé (Tibetan: ཏི་སེ་) mountain, SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard
which derives from ti tse in the Zhang-Zhung language, meaning "water peak" or "river peak", connoting the mountain's status as the source of the mythical Lion, Horse, Peacock and Elephant Rivers, and in fact the Indus, Yarlung Tsangpo/Dihang/Brahmaputra, Karnali and Sutlej all begin in the Kailash-Lake Manassarovar region.[6] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
According to Hinduism, Lord Shiva, the destroyer of ignorance and illusion, resides at the summit of a legendary mountain named Kailās, where he sits in a state of perpetual meditation along with his wife Pārvatī. Compaq Presario CQ56-105TU laptop keyboard
According to Charles Allen, one description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made ofcrystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli.[7] It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.[7] ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
The ancient Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee is heralded as "Dakshina Kailasam" (Kailash of the South) it lies on exactly the same longitude as Mount Kailash. Many of the Kailasanath temple's sculptures and relics depict episodes relating to Lord Shiva and Maa Parvati, including Ravana's tale. (Ravana was a devotee of Lord Shiva. HP 431416-001 Laptop Keyboard
Ramayana does not document Ravana shaking the mountain.) Ravana's mother had fallen ill. As they were great Lord Shiva devotees, he had attempted to carry the temple on his back to bring it closer to his mother. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
[8]
Tantric Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the home of the Buddha Demchok (also known as Demchog orChakrasamvara),[11] who represents supreme bliss.
There are numerous sites in the region associated with Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava), whose tantric practices in holy sites around Tibet are credited with finally establishing Buddhism as the main religion of the country in the 7th–8th century CE.[12] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
It is said that Milarepa (c. 1052-c. 1135 CE), champion of Tantric Buddhism, arrived in Tibet to challenge Naro Bön-chung, champion of the Bön religion of Tibet. The two magicians engaged in a terrifying sorcerers' battle, but neither was able to gain a decisive advantage. Finally, it was agreed that whoever could reach the summit of Kailash SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D Laptop Keyboard
most rapidly would be the victor. While Naro Bön-chung sat on a magic drum and soared up the slope, Milarepa's followers were dumbfounded to see him sitting still and meditating. Yet when Naro Bön-chung was nearly at the top, Milarepa suddenly moved into action and overtook him by riding on the rays of the sun, thus winning the contest. TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 Laptop Keyboard
He did, however, fling a handful of snow on to the top of a nearby mountain, since known as Bönri, bequeathing it to the Bönpo and thereby ensuring continued Bönpo connections with the region.[13] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
Some pilgrims believe that the entire walk around Kailash should be made in a single day, which is not considered an easy task. A person in good shape walking fast would take perhaps 15 hours to complete the 52 km trek. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard
Some of the devout do accomplish this feat, little daunted by the uneven terrain, altitude sickness and harsh conditions faced in the process. Indeed, other pilgrims venture a much more demanding regimen, performing body-length prostrations over the entire length of the circumambulation: The pilgrim bends down, kneels, prostrates full-length, HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
makes a mark with his fingers, rises to his knees, prays, and then crawls forward on hands and knees to the mark made by his/her fingers before repeating the process. It requires at least four weeks of physical endurance to perform the circumambulation while following this regimen. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The mountain is located in a particularly remote and inhospitable area of the Tibetan Himalayas. A few modern amenities, such as benches, resting places and refreshment kiosks, exist to aid the pilgrims in their devotions. TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard
According to all religions that revere the mountain, setting foot on its slopes is a dire sin. It is claimed that many people who ventured to defy the taboo have died in the process[citation needed]. It is a popular belief that the stairways on Mount Kailash lead to heaven. Following the political and border disturbances across the Chinese-Indian boundary, COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard
pilgrimage to the legendary abode of Lord Shiva was stopped from 1954 to 1978. Thereafter, a limited number of Indian pilgrims have been allowed to visit the place, under the supervision of the Chinese and Indian governments either by a lengthy and hazardous trek over the Himalayan terrain, HP Mini 110-3001ev laptop keyboard
travel by land from Kathmandu or from Lhasa where flights from Kathmandu are available to Lhasa and thereafter travel over the great Tibetan plateau by car. The journey takes four night stops, finally arriving at Darchen at elevation of 4,600 m (15,100 ft), Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
small outpost that swells with pilgrims at certain times of year. Despite its minimal infrastructure, modest guest houses are available for foreign pilgrims, whereas Tibetan pilgrims generally sleep in their own tents. A small regional medical center serving far-western Tibet and funded by the Swiss Ngari Korsum Foundation was built here in 1997. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
Walking around the holy mountain—a part of its official park—has to be done on foot, pony or yak, taking some three days of trekking starting from a height of around 15,000 ft (4,600 m) past the Tarboche (flagpole) to cross the Drölma pass 18,200 ft (5,500 m), SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
and encamping for two nights en route. First, near the meadow of Dirapuk gompa, some 2 to 3 km (1.2 to 1.9 mi) before the pass and second, after crossing the pass and going downhill as far as possible (viewing Gauri Kund in the distance). SONY VAIO PCG-FR215H laptop keyboard
Although Mount Kailash has never been climbed, mountaineers have prospected the mountain with a view to it. In 1926,Hugh Ruttledge studied the north face, which he estimated was 6,000 ft (1,800 m) high and "utterly unclimbable"[18] IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
and thought about an ascent of the northeast ridge, but he ran out of time. Ruttledge had been exploring the area with Colonel R. C. Wilson, who was on the other side of the mountain with his Sherpa named Satan. According to Wilson, Satan told Wilson, "'Sahib, we can climb that!' ... SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
as he too saw that this [the SE ridge] represented a feasible route to the summit."[19] Further excerpts from Wilson's article in the Alpine Journal (vol. 40, 1928) show that he was serious about climbing Kailash, but he also ran out of time. HP 6530S laptop keyboard
Herbert Tichy was in the area in 1936, attempting to climb Gurla Mandhata. When he asked one of the Garpons of Ngari whether Kailash was climbable, the Garpon replied, "Only a man entirely free of sin could climb Kailas. And he wouldn't have to actually scale the sheer walls of ice to do it – he'd just turn himself into a bird and fly to the summit."[20] HP Pavilion dv6-3060ee laptop keyboard
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Reinhold Messner was given the opportunity by the Chinese government to climb in the mid-1980s but he declined.[21] In 2001 the Chinese gave permission for a Spanish team to climb the peak, but in the face of international disapproval the Chinese decided to ban all attempts to climb the mountain.[22] Messner, referring to the Spanish plans, ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
said, "If we conquer this mountain, then we conquer something in people's souls ... I would suggest they go and climb something a little harder. Kailash is not so high and not so hard."[21] Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
A drainage basin or watershed (North American English usages) is an extent or an area of land wheresurface water from rain and melting snow or ice converges to a single point at a lower elevation, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as a river, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
lake, reservoir, estuary,wetland, sea, or ocean. For example, a tributary stream of a brook which joins a small river, which is tributary of a larger river is thus part of a series of successively smaller area but higher elevation drainage basins (watersheds). HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
Similarly, the Missouri and American rivers are each part of their own drainage basins/watersheds and that of the Mississippi River.
Other terms that are used to describe a drainage basin are catchment, catchment area, catchment basin,drainage area, river basin and water basin.[1] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
n North America, the term watershed is commonly used to mean a drainage basin (though in other English-speaking countries, it is used only in its original sense, to mean a drainage divide[2]), the one meaning an area, the other its high elevation perimeter of that area. Drainage basins drain into other drainage basins in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins combining into larger drainage basins.[3] HP G61-423EO laptop keyboard
In closed drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake, dry lake, or a point where surface water is lost underground.[4] HP AETT3U00010 laptop keyboard
The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as well as the land surfaces from which water drains into those channels, and is separated from adjacent basins by a drainage divide.[5] SONY VAIO VGN-CR220E laptop keyboard
The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin and channelling it to a single point. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, SAMSUNG R20 Laptop Keyboard
the drainage divide or watershed (outside North America) making up a succession of higher geographical features (such as a ridge, hill or mountains) forming a barrier.
Drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
Hydrologic units are designed to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks. In a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins.[4]
The United States Environmental Protection Agency launched the website Watershed Central for the US public to exchange information and locate resources needed to restore local drainage basins in their country. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
Endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks. The largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard
the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Other endorheic regions include the Great Basin in the United States, much of the Sahara Desert, the watershed of the Okavango River (Kalahari Basin), DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard
highlands near the African Great Lakes, the interiors of Australia and the Arabian Peninsula, and parts in Mexico and the Andes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, adjacent closed basins. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
In endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example is the Dead Sea.
In hydrology, the drainage basin is a logical unit of focus for studying the movement of water within the hydrological cycle, ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard
because the majority of water that discharges from the basin outlet originated as precipitation falling on the basin. A portion of the water that enters the groundwater system beneath the drainage basin may flow towards the outlet of another drainage basin because groundwater flow directions do not always match those of their overlying drainage network. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
Measurement of the discharge of water from a basin may be made by a stream gauge located at the basin's outlet.
Rain gauge data is used to measure total precipitation over a drainage basin, and there are different ways to interpret that data. If the gauges are many and evenly distributed over an area of uniform precipitation, using the arithmetic mean method will give good results. HP Pavilion DV7-4100 Laptop Keyboard
In the Thiessen polygon method, the watershed is divided into polygons with the rain gauge in the middle of each polygon assumed to be representative for the rainfall on the area of land included in its polygon. These polygons are made by drawing lines between gauges, then making perpendicular bisectors of those lines form the polygons. ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
The isohyetal method involves contours of equal precipitation are drawn over the gauges on a map. Calculating the area between these curves and adding up the volume of water is time consuming. TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard
Isochrone maps can be used to show the time taken for runoff water within a drainage basin to reach a lake, reservoir or outlet, assuming constant and uniform effective rainfall.[7][8][9][10]
The Eurasian Plate is a tectonic plate which includes most of the continent of Eurasia (a landmass consisting of the traditional continents of Europe and Asia), HP Pavilion DV6-1103ax Laptop Keyboard
with the notable exceptions of the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian subcontinent, and the area east of the Chersky Range in East Siberia. It also includes oceanic crust extending westward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and northward to the Gakkel Ridge. HP Pavilion ze4325 Laptop Keyboard
The eastern side is a boundary with the North American Plate to the north and a boundary with thePhilippine Sea Plate to the south, and possibly with the Okhotsk Plate and the Amurian Plate. The southerly side is a boundary with the African Plate to the west, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
the Arabian Plate in the middle and the Indo-Australian Plate to the east. The westerly side is a divergent boundary with the North American Plate forming the northernmost part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is straddled by Iceland. The 1973 eruption of Eldfell, the volcano of the Icelandic island Heimaey, caused by the North American and the Eurasian plates moving apart, is a result of divergent plate boundary forces. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The geodynamics of central Asia is dominated by the interaction between the North Eurasia and India Plates. In this area, many subplates or crust blocks have been recognized. These subplates or crust blocks form the Central Asian transit zone and the East Asian transit zone.[1] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
The history of organised European colonisation on the islands began when the Danish settlers of the Danish East India Company arrived in the Nicobar Islands on 12 December 1755. On 1 January 1756, the Nicobar Islands were made a Danish colony, first named New Denmark,[8] HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard
and later (December 1756) Frederick's Islands (Frederiksøerne). During 1754–1756 they were administrated from Tranquebar (in continentalDanish India). The islands were repeatedly abandoned due to outbreaks of malaria between 14 April 1759 and 19 August 1768, from 1787 to 1807/05, 1814 to 1831, 1830 to 1834 and gradually from 1848 for good.[8] DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard
From 1 June 1778 to 1784, Austria mistakenly assumed that Denmark had abandoned its claims to the Nicobar Islands and attempted to establish a colony on them,[9] renaming them Theresia Islands.[8] HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
In 1789 the British set up a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island next to Great Andaman, where now lies the town of Port Blair. Two years later the colony was moved to Port Cornwallis on Great Andaman, but it was abandoned in 1796 due to disease. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Denmark's presence in the territory ended formally on 16 October 1868 when it sold the rights to the Nicobar Islands to Britain,[9] which made them part ofBritish India in 1869.
In 1858 the British again established a colony at Port Blair, which proved to be more permanent. The primary purpose was to set up a penal colony for dissenters and independence fighters from the Indian subcontinent. The colony came to include the infamous Cellular Jail. HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard
In 1872 the Andaman and Nicobar islands were united under a single chief commissioner at Port Blair.
During World War II, the islands were practically under Japanese control, only nominally under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind of NetajiSubhas Chandra Bose. Bose visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as "Shaheed-dweep" (Martyr Island) and "Swaraj-dweep" (Self-rule Island). DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army was made the Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. On 22 February 1944 he along with four INA officers — Major Mansoor Ali Alvi, Sub. Lt. Md. Iqbal, Lt. Suba Singh and stenographer Srinivasan—arrived at Lambaline Airport in Port Blair. On 21 March 1944 the Headquarters of the HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
Civil Administration was established near the Gurudwara at Aberdeen Bazaar. On 2 October 1944, Col. Loganathan handed over the charge to Maj. Alvi and left Port Blair, never to return.[10] The islands were reoccupied by British and Indian troops of the 116th Indian Infantry Brigade on 7 October 1945, to whom the remaining Japanese garrison surrendered. DELL V109002CS1 Laptop Keyboard
On 26 December 2004 the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were devastated by a 10 m (33 ft) high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. More than 2,000 people were confirmed dead, more than 4,000 children were orphaned or suffered the loss of one parent, and a minimum of 40,000 people were rendered homeless.[12] SONY 148084721 Laptop Keyboard
The worst affected Nicobar islands were Katchal and Indira Point; the latter subsided 4.25 metres and was partially submerged in the ocean. The lighthouse at Indira Point was damaged but has been repaired since then. The territory lost a large amount of area which is now submerged. The territory which was at 8,073 km2 (3,117 sq mi) is now merely at 7,950 km2 (3,070 sq mi). HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
While newer settlers of the islands suffered the greatest casualties from the tsunami, most of the aboriginal people survived because oral traditions passed down from generations ago warned them to evacuate from large waves that follow large earthquakes.[13] SONY 148084721 Laptop Keyboard
Geography
There are 572 islands in the territory having an area of 7,950 km2 (3,070 sq mi). Of these, about 34 are permanently inhabited. The islands extend from 6° to 14° North latitudes and from 92° to 94° East longitudes. The Andamans are separated from the Nicobar group by a channel (the Ten Degree Channel) some 150 km (93 mi) wide. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 laptop keyboard
The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at 732 m (2,402 ft)). The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 24 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi).[11]:33SONY 147998121 laptop keyboard
The capital of the union territory, Port Blair, is located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata, 1,200 km (750 mi) fromVisakhapatnam and 1,190 km (740 mi) from Chennai.[11]:33 The northernmost point of the Andaman and Nicobars group is 901 km (560 mi) away from the mouth of the Hooghly River and 190 km (120 mi) from Burma. Indira Point at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″HP Pavilion DV7-2206tx laptop keyboard
E at the southern tip of the southernmost island, Great Nicobar, is the southernmost point of India and lies only 150 km (93 mi) from Sumatra in Indonesia.
The Tibetan Plateau is bounded on the north by a broad escarpment where the altitude drops from around 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) in less than 150 kilometres (93 mi). HP Pavilion DV7-3100 laptop keyboard
Along the escarpment is a range of mountains. In the west the Kunlun Mountains separate the plateau from the Tarim Basin. About half way across the Tarim the bounding range becomes the Altyn-Tagh and the Kunluns, by convention, continue somewhat to the south. In the 'V' formed by this split is the western part of the Qaidam Basin. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
The Altyn-Tagh ends near the Dangjin pass on theDunhuang-Golmud road. To the west are short ranges called the Danghe, Yema, Shule and Tulai Nanshans. HP NSK-H8N01-US laptop keyboard
The easternmost range is the Qilian Mountains. The line of mountains continues east of the plateau as the Qin Mountains which separate the Ordos Region from Sichuan. North of the mountains runs the Gansu or Hexi Corridor which was the main silk-road route from China proper to the west. HP NSK-H8N01-US laptop keyboard
The plateau is a high-altitude arid steppe interspersed with mountain ranges and large brackish lakes. Annual precipitation ranges from 100 to 300 millimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) and falls mainly as hailstorms. The southern and eastern edges of the steppe have grasslands which can sustainably support populations of nomadic herdsmen, TOSHIBA NSK-T4D01 laptop keyboard
although frost occurs for six months of the year. Permafrost occurs over extensive parts of the plateau. Proceeding to the north and northwest, the plateau becomes progressively higher, colder and drier, until reaching the remote Changthang region in the northwestern part of the plateau. Here the average altitude exceeds 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) TOSHIBA P205-S6257 laptop keyboard
and winter temperatures can drop to −40 °C (−40 °F). As a result of this extremely inhospitable environment, the Changthang region (together with the adjoining Kekexili region) is the least populous region in Asia, and the third least populous area in the world afterAntarctica and northern Greenland. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
The Himalayas are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary andmetamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm per year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, TOSHIBA P205-S6257 laptop keyboard
the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards, the plateau is still rising about 5 mm per year. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
Monsoons are caused by the larger amplitude of the seasonal cycle of land temperature compared to that of nearby oceans. This differential warming happens because heat in the ocean is mixed vertically through a "mixed layer" that may be fifty meters deep, through the action of wind and buoyancy-generated turbulence, whereas the land surface conducts heat slowly, SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
with the seasonal signal penetrating perhaps a meter or so. Additionally, the specific heat capacity of liquid water is significantly higher than that of most materials that make up land. Together, these factors mean that the heat capacity of the layer participating in the seasonal cycle is much larger over the oceans than over land, ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
with the consequence that the air over the land warms faster and reaches a higher temperature than the air over the ocean.[15] The hot air over the land tends to rise, creating an area of low pressure. This creates a steady wind blowing toward the land, bringing the moist near-surface air over the oceans with it. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
Similar rainfall is caused by the moist ocean air being lifted upwards by mountains, surface heating, convergence at the surface, divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows at the surface. However the lifting occurs, the air cools due expansion in lower pressure, which in turn produces condensation. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
In winter, the land cools off quickly, but the ocean keeps the heat longer. The hot air over the ocean rises, creating a low pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large area of drying high pressure is formed over the land, increased by wintertime cooling.[15] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Monsoons are similar to sea and land breezes, a term usually referring to the localized, diurnal (daily) cycle of circulation near coastlines everywhere, but they are much larger in scale, stronger and seasonal.[16] The seasonal monsoon wind shift and weather associated with the heating and cooling of the Tibetan plateau is the strongest such monsoon on Earth. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during the Last Ice Age a c. 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) ice sheet covered the plateau.[17][18][19] Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element of climate forcing. With a much lower latitude, HP Pavilion ze4325 Laptop Keyboard
the ice in Tibet reflected at least 4 times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher latitudes. Thus, what at present adds heat to the atmosphere subtracted it instead.[20]
This cooling had multiple effects on regional climate. Without the thermal low caused by the heating, there was nomonsoon over the Indian subcontinent. HP Pavilion DV6-1103ax Laptop Keyboard
This lack of monsoon caused extensive rainfall over the Sahara desert, expansion of the Thar desert, more dust deposited into the Arabian Sea, and a lowering of the biotic life zones on the Indian subcontinent. Animals responded to this shift in climate, with the Javan Rusa deer migrating into India.[21] TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard
In addition, the glaciers in Tibet created meltwater lakes in the Qaidam Basin, the Tarim Basin and the Gobi Desert, despite the strong evaporation caused by the low latitude. Silt and clay from the glaciers accumulated in these lakes: ACER 9J.N0F82.A1D Laptop Keyboard
when the lakes dried at the end of the ice age, the silt and clay were blown by the downslope wind off the Plateau. These airborne fine grains produced the enormous amount of loess in the Chinese lowlands.[21] HP Pavilion DV7-4100 Laptop Keyboard
Since the end of the ice age, Tibet has risen at approximately 10 millimetres (0.39 in) per year, at the same rate as the Himalaya. While the Himalaya rise can be explained by plate tectonics, the rise of Tibet can be explained as the isostatic rebound of the crust rising after the weight of the ice was removed. The amount of isostatic rebound since the last ice age is approximately 650 metres (2,130 ft).[19] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
The geographical definition of the Indian subcontinent varies. Historically forming the whole territory of Greater India, now it generally comprises the countries of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh;[1] ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard
prior to 1947, the three nations were historically combined and constituted British India. It almost always also includes Nepal, Bhutan and the island country of Sri Lanka,[2][3] and may also include Afghanistan and the island country of Maldives.[4][5][6] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
The region may also include the disputed territory of Aksai Chin, which was part of the British Indian princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, but is now administered as part of the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang.[7] A booklet published by the United States Department of State in 1959 includes Afghanistan, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
India, Nepal, and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, now Bangladesh) as part of the "Subcontinent of South Asia".[8] When the term Indian subcontinent is used to mean South Asia, the island countries of Sri Lanka and the Maldives may sometimes not be included,[4] while Tibet and Nepal may be included[9] or excluded[10] intermittently, depending on the context. HP Mini 110-3107sa laptop keyboard
As there is a lack or no coherent definition for Indian subcontinent or South Asia (see the article South Asia for multiple definitions), the terms "Indian subcontinent" and "South Asia" are used interchangeably by some due to political reasons.[4][11][12][13][14] HP Pavilion dv6-2130ee laptop keyboard
In Religions of South Asia, Sushil Mittal and Gene R. Thursby state that the Indian subcontinent and South Asia refer to the same area.[15] Due to political sensitivities, some prefer to use the terms "South Asian subcontinent",[16][16][17] the "Indo-Pak-Bangladesh subcontinent",[18] SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard
the "Indo-Pak subcontinent",[19] "the subcontinent", or simply "South Asia"[20] over the term "Indian subcontinent". Historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal hold the view that the Indian subcontinent has come to be known as South Asia "in more recent and neutral parlance."[20] though their view is not acceptable to many. Indologist Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
Ronald B. Inden argues that the usage of the term "South Asia" is getting more widespread since it clearly distinguishes the region from East Asia.[21] Some academics hold that the term "South Asia" is in more common use in Europe and North America, rather than the terms "subcontinent" or the "Indian subcontinent".[22][23] Acer eMachines G730Z laptop keyboard
According to political science professor Tatu Vanhanen, "The seven countries of South Asia constitute geographically a compact region around the Indian Subcontinent";[24] while according to anthropologist John R. Lukacs, "The Indian Subcontinent occupies the major landmass of South Asia."[25] According to Chris Brewster, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan constitute the Indian subcontinent; with Afghanistan, Iran and Maldives included it is more commonly referred to as South Asia.[26] While using both terms to mean the same region in Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia Dr. William Gould of University of Leeds explains that "South Asia" is a geopolitical as well as a geographical term.[27] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Geographically, the Indian subcontinent is a peninsular region in south-central Asia, delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east,[28] and extending southward into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast.[1][4] TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5153 laptop keyboard
Most of this region rests on the Indian Plate and is isolated from the rest of Asia by mountain barriers.[29][30] The Indian Plate includes most of South Asia, forming a land mass which extends from the Himalayas into a portion of the basin under the Indian Ocean, including parts of South China and Eastern Indonesia, as well as Kuen Lun and Karakoram ranges,[31][32][33] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-300SB laptop keyboard
and extending up to but not including Ladakh, Kohistan, the Hindu Kushrange and Balochistan.[34][35][36]
Using a more expansive definition – counting India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives as the constituent countries – the Indian subcontinent covers about 4.4 million km² (1.7 million mi²),HP Pavilion dv5-1118tx laptop keyboard
which is 10% of the Asian continent or 3.3% of the world's land surface area.[37][38] Overall, it accounts for about 45% of Asia's population (or over 25% of the world's population) and is home to a vast array of peoples.[37][39][38] HP Pavilion dv6-3017tu laptop keyboard
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