Himalayas
The Himalayas, or Himalaya, (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə/ or /hɪˈmɑːləjə/; Sanskrit, hima (snow) + ālaya (dwelling), literally, "abode of the snow"[1]) is a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from theTibetan Plateau. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayan range is home to the planet's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. The Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres (23,600 ft) in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres (22,838 ft) SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
tall.[2] The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia. Many Himalayan peaks are sacred in both Buddhism and Hinduism.
Besides the Greater Himalayas of these high peaks there are parallel lower ranges. The first foothills, reaching about a thousand meters along the northern edge of the plains, are called the Sivalik Hills or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north is a higher range reaching two to three thousand meters known as the Lower Himalayan or Mahabharat Range. ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas abut or cross six countries: Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan, with the first three countries having sovereignty over most of the range.[3] The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by theKarakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
· Three of the world's major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, all rise near Mount Kailashand cross and encircle the Himalayas. Their combined drainage basin is home to some 600 million people. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Lifted by the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate,[4] the Himalayan range runs, west-northwest to east-southeast, in an arc 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) long. Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river, its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres (250 mi) in the west to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in the east. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
rainfall and soil conditions combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. For example the extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure) combined with extreme cold allow extremophile organisms to survive.[5] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due toclimate change. The increase in temperature may shift various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
especially rhododendron, apple and Myrica esculenta. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres (16,080 ft) in Southeastern Tibet.[6]
The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogenyalong the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmarand the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision. SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate was moving at about 15 cm per year. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. ACER TravelMate 3232WXMi Laptop Keyboard
Since both plates were composed of low density continental crust, they were thrust faulted and folded into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the mantle along an oceanic trench.[4] An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.[7] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards. The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315Z Laptop Keyboard
During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west.[8] In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 metres (3,300–6,600 ft).[8][9] While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20 to 32 kilometres (12 to 20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60 to 112 kilometres (37 to 70 mi) long during the ice age.[8] HP Pavilion DV7-2177cl laptop keyboard
The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 metres (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least 7.0 to 8.3 °C (12.6 to 14.9 °F) colder than it is today.[10] SONY VAIO VPC-F12 laptop keyboard
The Himalayas have the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and the Arctic.[11] The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 (3000 cubic miles) of fresh water.[12] Its glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region), and Zemu (Sikkim). Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Owing to the mountains' latitude near the Tropic of Cancer, the permanent snow line is among the highest in the world at typically around 5,500 metres (18,000 ft).[13] In contrast, equatorial mountains in New Guinea, the Rwenzoris and Colombiahave SONY VAIO VGN-NW35E/W laptop keyboard
a snow line some 900 metres (2,950 ft) lower.[14] The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems: HP Pavilion dv6-3007tu laptop keyboard
The easternmost Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmarto drain into the Andaman Sea.
The Salween, Mekong, Yangtze and Huang He (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains, TOSHIBA Satellite M640-BT2N23 laptop keyboard
and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the circum-Himalayan rivers.[16] In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of global climate change.[17] For example, DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
Glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers of northern India during the dry seasons.[18] SONY VGN-FE41S laptop keyboard
Some of the lakes present a danger of a glacial lake outburst flood. The Tsho Rolpa glacier lake in the Rolwaling Valley is rated as the most dangerous in Nepal.[19][20]
The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. TOSHIBA 6037B0028502 laptop keyboard
Tilicho lake in Nepal in the Annapurna massif is one of the highest lakes in the world. Pangong Tso, which is spread across the border between India and China, and Yamdrok Tso, located in central Tibet, are amongst the largest with surface areas of 700 km², and 638 km², respectively. Other notable lakes include Gurudogmar lake, inNorth Sikkim, and Tsongmo lake, near the Indo-China border in Sikkim. DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.[21]
The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. They prevent frigid, dry Arctic winds blowing south into the subcontinent, HP Pavilion DV7-2173cl laptop keyboard
which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakanand Gobi.[22] In Hinduism, the Himalayas have been personified as the god Himavat, father of Ganga andParvati.[23] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in Hinduism, Jainism,Sikhism, and Buddhism. A notable example of a religious site is Paro Taktsang, wherePadmasambhava is said to have founded Buddhism in Bhutan.[24] ACER Aspire 1690 laptop keyboard
A number of Tibetan Buddhist sites are situated in the Himalayas, including the residence of the Dalai Lama. There were over 6,000 monasteries in Tibet.[25] The Tibetan Muslims had their own mosques in Lhasa and Shigatse.[26] HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
Tilicho lake is one of the highest lakes in the world.[1] It is 4,949 m high in the Annapurna range of the Himalayas inManang district of Nepal.[2] Another source lists Lake Tilicho as being 4,919 meters high (16,138 feet).[3] FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 laptop keyboard
Mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.[3]
Tilicho Lake is the destination of one of the most popular side hikes of the Annapurna Circuit trek. The hike takes additional 3-4 days. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
No camping is required, as new lodges have been built between Manang and the lake. Final approach to the lake is done in a day hike from the lodge at Tilicho Base Camp.
Trekkers attempting the Annapurna Circuit route usually cross the watershed between Manang and Kali Kandaki valleys over the 5414 meters high Thorong La pass. FUJITSU Siemens M1010 laptop keyboard
The alternate route skirting Tilicho Lake from the north has been gaining popularity. This route is more demanding and requires at least one night of camping. There are no teahouses or lodges past the Tilicho Base Camp lodge some kilometers east of the lake and the next village of Thini Gaon in the Kali Gandaki valley. Compaq Presario CQ62-358TU laptop keyboard
Most groups spend two nights between these places. There are two passes leading to Thini Gaon and Jomsom; Mesokanto La and Tilicho North pass known also as Tilicho "Tourist pass". These routes via Tilicho Lake are more often closed by snow than the higher Thorong La. TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 laptop keyboard
It was also the site of one of the highest ever altitude scuba dives. A Russian diving team consisting of Andrei Andryushin, Denis Bakin and Maxim Gresko conducted a scuba dive in the lake in 2000.[4] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
The upheavals within the CPUSA in 1928 were an echo of a much more significant change: Stalin's decision to break off any form of collaboration with western socialist parties, which were now condemned as "social fascists." This policy had particularly severe consequences in Germany, where the German Communist Party not only refused to work in alliance with the German Social Democratic Party, but attacked it and its members. HP Pavilion DV6-1350us laptop keyboard
The impact of this policy in the U.S. was counted in membership figures. In 1928 there were about 24,000 members. By 1932 the total had fallen to 6,000 members.[18]
Opposing Stalin's Third Period policies in the Communist Party USA was James P. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
Cannon. For this action, he was expelled from the party. He then founded the Communist League of America with Max Shachtman and Martin Abern, and started publishing The Militant. It declared itself to be an external faction of the Communist Party until, as the Trotskyists saw it, Stalin's policies in Germany helped Hitler take power. At that point they started working towards the founding of a new international, the Fourth International. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
In the United States the principal impact of the Third Period was to end the CPUSA's efforts to organize within the AFL through the Trade Union Educational League and to turn its efforts into organizing dual unions through the Trade Union Unity League. DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
By 1930, the party adopted the title of Communist Party of the USA, with the slogan of "the united front from below". The Party devoted much of its energy in the Great Depression to organizing the unemployed, attempting to found "red" unions, championing the rights of African-Americans and fighting evictions of farmers and the working poor.[19] HP Pavilion dv6-3057tx laptop keyboard
At the same time, the Party attempted to weave its sectarian revolutionary politics into its day-to-day defense of workers, usually with only limited success. HP Pavilion DV7-3057nr laptop keyboard
They recruited more disaffected members of the Socialist Party and an organization of African-American socialists called the African Blood Brotherhood, some of whose members, particularly Harry Haywood, would later play important roles in communist work among blacks. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
In 1932, the retiring head of the CPUSA, William Z. Foster, published a book entitled Toward Soviet America, which laid out the Communist Party's plans for revolution and the building of a new socialist society based on the model of Soviet Russia. TOSHIBA Satellite l20-135 laptop keyboard
In that same year Earl Browder became General Secretary of the Party. At first Browder moved the party closer to Soviet interests, and helped to develop its secret apparatus or underground network. He also assisted in the recruitment of espionage sources and agents for the Soviet NKVD. Browder's own younger sister Margerite Toshiba Satellite L30-10X Laptop CPU Fan
was an NKVD operative in Europe until removed from those duties at Browder's request.[20] It was at this point that the CPUSA's foreign policy platform came under the complete control of Stalin, who enforced his directives through his secret police and foreign intelligence service, Toshiba Satellite A300-21H Laptop CPU Fan
the NKVD. The NKVD controlled the secret apparatus of the CPUSA, including responsibility for political murders, kidnappings, and assassinations.[21][22]
The ideological rigidity of the third period began to crack, however, with two events: the election of Franklin D. SONY Vaio VGN-FS415M Laptop CPU Fan
Roosevelt as president of the United States in 1932 and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany in 1933. Roosevelt's election and the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 sparked a tremendous upsurge in union organizing in 1933 and 1934. While the party line still favored creation of autonomous revolutionary unions, HP Pavilion dv6-3109ca Laptop CPU Fan
party activists chose to fold up those organizations and follow the mass of workers into the AFL unions they had been attacking. HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Fan
The Seventh Congress of the Comintern made the change in line official in 1935, when it declared the need for a popular frontof all groups opposed to fascism. The CPUSA abandoned its opposition to the New Deal, provided many of the organizers for theCongress of Industrial Organizations and began supporting African-American civil rights. HP Pavilion dv9547cl Laptop CPU Fan
The party also sought unity with forces to its right. Earl Russell Browder offered to run as Norman Thomas' running mate on a joint Socialist Party-Communist Party ticket in the 1936 presidential election but Thomas rejected this overture. IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 Laptop CPU Fan
The gesture did not mean that much in practical terms, since the CPUSA was, by 1936, effectively supporting Roosevelt in much of his trade union work. While continuing to run its own candidates for office, the CPUSA pursued a policy of representing theDemocratic Party as the lesser evil in elections. Toshiba Satellite P300 Laptop CPU Fan
Party members also rallied to the defense of the Spanish Republic during this period after a Nationalist military uprising moved to overthrow it, resulting in the Spanish Civil War (1936 to 1939). HP Pavilion dv7-4283cl Laptop CPU Fan
The CPUSA, along with leftists throughout the world, raised funds for medical relief while many of its members made their way to Spain with the aid of the party to join the Lincoln Brigade, one of the International Brigades. Among its other achievements, the Lincoln Brigade was the first American military force to include blacks and whites integrated on an equal basis. HP COMPAQ 2510P Series Laptop CPU Fan
Intellectually, the Popular Front period saw the development of a strong communist influence in intellectual and artistic life. This was often through various organizations influenced or controlled by the Party or, as they were pejoratively known, "fronts." HP Pavilion dv6-3126ea Laptop CPU Fan
The CPUSA under Browder supported Stalin's show trials in the Soviet Union, called the Moscow Trials.[23] Therein, between August 1936 and mid-1938 the Soviet government indicted, tried, and shot virtually all of the remaining Old Bolsheviks.[23] Beyond the show trials lay a broader purge, the Great Purge, that killed millions.[23] IBM 41W5269 Laptop CPU Fan
Browder uncritically supported Stalin, likening Trotskyism to "cholera germs" and calling the purge "a signal service to the cause of progressive humanity."[24] He compared the show trial defendants to domestic traitors Benedict Arnold, Aaron Burr, Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX Laptop CPU Fan
disloyal War of 1812 Federalists, and Confederate secessionists, while likening persons who "smeared" Stalin's name to those who had slandered Abraham Lincoln and Franklin Roosevelt.[24] HP Pavilion dv6-2057eo Laptop CPU Fan
The CPUSA was adamantly opposed to fascism during the Popular Front period. Although membership in the CPUSA rose to about 75,000[25] by 1938, many members left the party after the Soviet Union signed theMolotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany on August 23, HP Pavilion dv7-1135nr Laptop CPU Fan
1939.[citation needed]While General Secretary Browder at first attacked Germany for its September 1, 1939 invasion of western Poland, on September 11, the CPUSA received a blunt directive from Moscow denouncing the Polish government.[26] Between September 14–16, CPUSA leaders bickered about the direction to take.[26] IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 Laptop CPU Fan
On September 17 the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[27][28] Toshiba Satellite A100-02M Laptop CPU Fan
The British, French, and German Communist parties, all originally war supporters, abandoned their anti-Fascist crusades, demanded peace, and denounced Allied governments.[29] The CPUSA turned the focus of its public activities from anti-fascism to advocating peace, not only opposing military preparations but also condemning those opposed to Hitler. ACER Aspire 5730Z Series Laptop CPU Fan
[29]
In October and November, after the Soviets invaded Finland and forced mutual assistance pacts from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the CPUSA considered Russian security sufficient justification to support the actions.[30] HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Fan
Secret short wave radio broadcasts in October from Comintern leader Georgi Dimitrov ordered Stalinist Browder to change the CPUSA's support for Roosevelt.[30] On October 23, the CPUSA began attacking Roosevelt.[31] Toshiba Satellite P300-1FN CPU Fan
The CPUSA dropped its boycott of Nazi goods, spread the slogans "The Yanks Are Not Coming" and "Hands Off", set up a "perpetual peace vigil" across the street from the White House and announced that Roosevelt was the head of the "war party of the American bourgeoisie."[31] HP Pavilion dv7-4177nr Laptop CPU Fan
By April 1940, the CPUSA Daily Worker's line seemed not so much antiwar as simply pro-German.[32] A pamphlet stated the Jews had just as much to fear from Britain and France as they did Germany.[32] ACER Aspire One A110-1834 Laptop CPU Fan
In August 1940, after NKVD agent Ramón Mercader killed Leon Trotsky with an ice axe, Browder perpetuated Moscow's fiction that the killer, who had been dating one of Trotsky's secretaries, was a disillusioned follower.[33] HP 580718-001 Laptop CPU Fan
In allegiance to the Soviet Union, the party changed this policy again after Adolf Hitler broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact by attacking the Soviet Unionon June 22, 1941.
Throughout the rest of World War II, the CPUSA continued a policy of militant, if sometimes bureaucratic, trade unionism while opposing strike actions at all costs. Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Fan
The leadership of the CPUSA was among the most vocal pro-war voices in the United States, advocating unity against fascism, supporting the prosecution of leaders of the Socialist Workers Party under the newly enacted Smith Act,[34] and opposing A. Philip Randolph's efforts to organize a march on Washington to dramatize black workers'SONY Vaio VPC-EB4X1E/BQ Laptop CPU Fan
demands for equal treatment on the job. Prominent CPUSA members and supporters, such as Dalton Trumbo and Pete Seeger, recalled anti-war material they had previously released.
Earl Browder expected the wartime coalition between the Soviet Union and the west to bring about a prolonged period of social harmony after the war. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Fan
In order better to integrate the communist movement into American life the party was officially dissolved in 1944 and replaced by a "Communist Political Association".
That harmony proved elusive, however, HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop CPU Fan
and the international Communist movement swung to the left after the war ended. Browder found himself isolated when a critical letter from the leader of the French Communist Party received wide circulation. ACER Aspire 7112WSMi Laptop CPU Fan
In line with other Communist parties worldwide, the CPUSA also swung to the left and, as a result, experienced a brief period in which a number of internal critics argued for a more leftist stance than the leadership was willing to countenance. The result was the expulsion of a handful of "premature anti-revisionists". Toshiba GDM610000277 Laptop CPU Fan
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More important for the party was the renewal of state persecution of the CPUSA. The Truman administration's loyalty oath program, introduced in 1947, drove some leftists out of federal employment and, more importantly, legitimized the notion of Communists as subversives, to be exposed and expelled from public and private employment. Dell Vostro 3350 Laptop CPU Fan
The House Committee on Un-American Activities, whose hearings were perceived as forums where current and former Communists and those sympathetic to Communism were compelled under the duress of the ruin of their careers to confess and name other Communists, Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Fan
made even brief affiliation with the CPUSA or any related groups grounds for public exposure and attack, inspiring local governments to adopt loyalty oaths and investigative commissions of their own. Private parties, such as the motion picture industry and self-appointed watchdog groups, extended the policy still further. This included the still controversial blacklist of actors, TOSHIBA Mini NB 300 Series Laptop Keyboard
writers and directors in Hollywood who had been Communists or who had fallen in with Communist-controlled or influenced organizations in the pre-war and wartime years.
The union movement purged party members as well. The CIO formally expelled a number of left-led unions in 1949 after internal disputes triggered by the party's support for Henry Wallace's SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard
candidacy for President and its opposition to the Marshall Plan, while other labor leaders sympathetic to the CPUSA either were driven out of their unions or dropped their alliances with the party. DELL Latitude E5500 Laptop Keyboard
In 1949's Foley Square trial, the FBI prosecuted eleven members of the CPUSA's leadership, including Gus Hall and Eugene Dennis. The prosecution argued that the Party endorsed a violent overthrow of the government; but the defendants countered that they advocated for a peaceful transition to socialism, HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard
and that the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech and association protected their membership in a political party. The trial – held in Manhattan'sFoley Square courthouse – was widely publicized by the media, and was featured on the cover of Time magazine twice. TOSHIBA Equium A100 Series Laptop Keyboard
Large numbers of protesters supporting the communist defendants protested outside the courthouse daily. The defense attorneys used a "labor defense" strategy, which attacked the trial as a capitalist venture that would not provide a fair outcome to proletarian defendants. During the trial, SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
the defense routinely antagonized the judge and prosecution, and five of the defendants were sent to jail for contempt of court for disrupting the trial. Public opinion was overwhelmingly against the defendants, and after a ten-month trial, DELL Vostro 3350 Laptop Keyboard
the jury found all 11 defendants guilty, and they were sentenced to terms of five years in federal prison. When the trial concluded, the judge sent all five defense attorneys to jail for contempt of court. Two of the attorneys were subsequently disbarred. ACER Aspire 7736ZG Laptop Keyboard
The government prosecutors, encouraged by their success, arrested and convicted over 100 additional Party officers in the early 1950s.[35]
The widespread fear of Communism became even more acute after the Soviets' detonation of an atomic bomb in 1949 and discovery of Soviet espionage.[36] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
Ambitious politicians, including Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, made names for themselves by exposing or threatening to expose Communists within the Truman administration or later, in McCarthy's case, within the United States Army. Liberal groups, HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
such as the Americans for Democratic Action, not only distanced themselves from communists and communist causes, but defined themselves as anti-communist. Congress outlawed the CPUSA in the Communist Control Act of 1954.[37] HP 517865-031 Laptop Keyboard
However, the act was largely ineffectual thanks in part to its ambiguous language. In the 1961 case, Communist Party v. Catherwood, theUnited States Supreme Court ruled that the act did not bar the party from participating in New York's unemployment insurance system. No administration has tried to enforce it since. Lenovo 0A62039 Laptop Keyboard
By the mid-1950s, membership of Communist Party USA had slipped from its 1944 peak of around 80,000[38] to an active base of approximately 5,000.[39] Some 1,500 of these "members" were FBI informants.[40] DELL Vostro A860 Laptop Keyboard
To the extent that the Communist Party did survive, it was crippled by the penetration activities of these informants, who kept close surveillance on the few remaining legitimate members of the Party on behalf of FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover,[41][42] HP Pavilion DV3000 Laptop Keyboard
and the CPUSA dried up as a base for Soviet espionage.[43] "If it were not for me," Hoover told a State Department official in 1963, "there would not be a Communist Party of the United States. Because I've financed the Communist Party, ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
in order to know what they are doing."[44] William Sullivan, chief of intelligence operations for the FBI in the 1950s, has also described Hoover's continued zeal in pursuing action against the CPUSA as "insincere", as he was fully aware of the Party's moribund condition.[44] Senator McCarthy had also kept up his attacks on the CPUSA during the 1950s despite also being aware of its impotency.[44] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
Against the backdrop of these many setbacks, however, William Z Foster, who was once again in a leadership role after the ouster of Earl Browder, and who, due to his poor health, had not been brought to trial in 1948 along with a number of other members of the party's leadership, wrote his "History of the Communist Party of the United States".[45] SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard
"The Party history is the record of the American class struggle, of which it is a vital part. It is the story, in general, of the growth of the working class; the abolition of slavery and emancipation of the Negro People; the building of the trade union and farmer movements; the numberless strikes and political struggles of the toiling masses; DELL Inspiron M5030 Laptop Keyboard
and the growing political alliance of workers, Negroes, farmers, and intellectuals,"[46] says Foster in the first chapter, illuminating a very different perspective of the party, from within.
The 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary and the Secret Speech of Nikita Khrushchev to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union criticizing Stalin had a cataclysmic effect on the previously Stalinist majority membership CPUSA.[47] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Membership plummeted and the leadership briefly faced a challenge from a loose grouping led by Daily Worker editor John Gates, which wished to democratize the party. Perhaps the greatest single blow dealt to the party in this period was the loss of the Daily Worker, published since 1924, which was suspended in 1958 due to falling circulation. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Most of the critics would depart from the party demoralized, but others would remain active in progressive causes and would often end up working harmoniously with party members. This diaspora rapidly came to provide the audience for publications like the National Guardian and Monthly Review, which were to be important in the development of the New Left in the 1960s. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
The post-1956 upheavals in the CPUSA also saw the advent of a new leadership around former steel worker Gus Hall. Hall's views were very much those of his mentor Foster, but the younger man was to be more rigorous in ensuring the party was completely orthodox than the older man in his last years. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Therefore, while remaining critics who wished to liberalize the party were expelled, so too were anti-revisionist critics who took an anti-Khrushchev stance.
Many of these critics were elements on both U.S. FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 Laptop Keyboard
coasts who would come together to form the Progressive Labor Movement in 1961. Progressive Labor would come to play a role in many of the numerous Maoist organizations of the mid-1960s and early 1970s. Jack Shulman, Foster's secretary TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 Laptop Keyboard
also played a role in these organizations; he was not expelled from the CPUSA, but resigned. In the 1970s, the CPUSA managed to grow in membership to about 25,000 members, despite the exodus of numerous Anti-Revisionist and Maoist groups from its ranks. FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Laptop Keyboard
Ideologically, much appears to be up for grabs[clarification needed], for example regarding China.[48] In a 2002 article in People's Weekly World, CPUSA correspondents Marilyn Bechtel and Debbie Bell said of their trip to the People's Republic of China: "[W]e came away with a new respect for the thoughtfulness, thoroughness, GATEWAY V030946FS1 US Laptop Keyboard
energy and optimism with which the Communist Party of China and the Chinese people are going about the complex, long-term process of building socialism in a vast developing country, which is of necessity part of an increasingly globalized economy."[49] SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard
An overview of the Communist Party's current ideology can be found in the near-definitive report, "Reflections on Socialism", by Sam Webb, the Party's national chair. The article explains the Party's support for a democratic, anti-racist, anti-sexist, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
immediate left-wing change for the United States. The report also covers the fall of the Socialist Bloc, claiming that democracy was not sufficiently developed in these countries. The report states that, "On the one hand, socialism transformed and modernized backward societies, secured important economic and social rights, DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
assisted countries breaking free of colonialism, contributed decisively to the victory over Nazism, constituted by its mere presence a pressure on the ruling classes in the capitalist world to make concessions to their working classes and democratic movements, and acted as a counterweight to the aggressive ambitions of U.S. imperialism for nearly fifty years." DELL Vostro 3350 Laptop Keyboard
The report stresses its dedication to revolutionary struggle, but states that Americans should look for peaceful revolutionary change. Webb says that capitalism cannot solve problems such as economic stagnation, racism, gender discrimination, or poverty. The report explains that there will be many transitory stages from capitalism, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
to socialism, and finally to communism. On the issue of markets in a socialist society, Webb states, "Admittedly, market mechanisms in a socialist society can generate inequality, disproportions and imbalances, destructive competition, HP Pavilion dv6-3040sp Laptop Keyboard
downward pressure on wages, and monopoly cornering of commodity markets – even the danger of capitalist restoration. But this is not sufficient reason for concluding that markets have no place in a socialist economy." HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
The CPUSA recognizes the right of independence-seeking groups, many of whom have been led by communist and communist-oriented partisans, to defend themselves from imperialism, but rejects the use of violence in any United States uprising. The CPUSA argues that most violence throughout modern history is the result of capitalist ruling class violently trying to stop social change.[50] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
While some governments run by people calling themselves Communists have been responsible for horrible acts of violence and repression, notably the Pol Pot regime in Cambodia, much if not most of the violence often blamed on revolutionary governments and parties is actually the responsibility of the conservative, reactionary, capitalist governments and parties. .. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
. Many revolutions have been relatively peaceful, including the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 . The bloodshed comes when those formerly in power initiate a civil war, or foreign armies invade, trying to reestablish capitalist, feudal, or colonial power. … HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
In order to make room for the rental of 4 floors in the CPUSA national building the CPUSA had to move its extensive archives. The archives of the Communist Party USA were donated in March, 2007 to the Tamiment Library at New York University. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
The massive donation, in 12,000 cartons, included history from the founding of the party, 20,000 books and pamphlets, and a million photographs from the archives of the Daily Worker. The Tamiment Library also holds a copy of the microfilmed archive of Communist Party documents from Soviet Archives held by the Library of Congress and from other materials which documents radical and Left history.[51] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
The party's constitution has changed over time. It originally stated "The Communist Party will systematically and persistently propagate the idea of the inevitability of and necessity for violent revolution, and will prepare the workers for armed insurrection as the only means of overthrowing the capitalist state." It further stated, “The Communist Party of America is an underground, illegal organization”[52] SONY VAIO VGN-NR11Z/S Laptop Keyboard
According to its 2001 Constitution, the party operates on the principle of democratic centralism, its highest authority being the quadrennial National Convention. Article VI, Section 3 of the 2001 Constitution lays out certain positions as non-negotiable: DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard
"struggle for the unity of the working class, against all forms of national oppression, national chauvinism, discrimination and segregation, against all racist ideologies and practices… against all manifestations of male supremacy and discrimination against women ... against homophobia and all manifestations of discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people ..."[53] HP Pavilion DV3500 Laptop Keyboard
Among the points in the party's "Immediate Program" are a $12/hour minimum wage for all workers, national universal health care, and opposition toprivatization of Social Security. Economic measures such as increased taxes on "the rich and corporations", "strong regulation" of the financial industry, "COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
regulation and public ownership of utilities", and increased federal aid to cities and states; opposition to the Iraq War and other military interventions; opposition to free trade treaties such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard
nuclear disarmament and a reduced military budget; various civil rights provisions; campaign finance reform including public financing of campaigns; and election law reform, including Instant Runoff Voting.[54] HP Pavilion dv6-2150so Laptop Keyboard
The Communist Party USA emphasizes a vision of socialism as an extension of American democracy. Seeking to "build socialism in the United States based on the revolutionary traditions and struggles" of American history, the CPUSA promotes a conception of "Bill of Rights Socialism" HP AEUT3U00140 Laptop Keyboard
that will "guarantee all the freedoms we have won over centuries of struggle, and also extend the Bill of Rights to include freedom from unemployment"– as well as freedom "from poverty, from illiteracy, and from discrimination and oppression."[55] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard
Reiterating the idea of property rights in socialist society as it is outlined in Marx and Engels's Communist Manifesto,[56] the Communist Party emphasizes that
"Many myths have been propagated about socialism. HP Pavilion dv4-1309tu Laptop Keyboard
Contrary to right-wing claims, socialism would not take away the personal private property of workers", but "the private ownership of major industries, financial institutions, and other large corporations, and the excessive luxuries of the super-rich."[55] HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard
Rather than making all wages entirely equal, the Communist Party USA holds that building socialism would entail "eliminating private wealth from stock speculation, from private ownership of large corporations, from the export of capital and jobs, and from the exploitation of large numbers of workers."[55] SONY 148084521 Laptop Keyboard
Among the primary concerns of the Communist Party are the problems of unemployment, underemployment and job insecurity, which Communism understands as the natural result of the profit-driven incentives of the capitalist economy. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
"Millions of workers are unemployed, underemployed, or insecure in their jobs, even during economic upswings and periods of 'recovery' from recessions. Most workers experience long years of stagnant and declining real wages, HP Mini 210-2037tu Laptop Keyboard
while health and education costs soar. Many workers are forced to work second and third jobs to make ends meet. Most workers now average four different occupations during their lifetime, many involuntarily moved from job to job and career to career. HP Pavilion dm3-1035DX Laptop Keyboard
Often, retirement-age workers are forced to continue working just to provide health care for themselves and their families. Millions of people continuously live below the poverty level; HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
many suffer homelessness and hunger. Public and private programs to alleviate poverty and hunger do not reach everyone, and are inadequate even for those they do reach. With capitalist globalization, jobs move from place to place as capitalists export factories and even entire industries to other countries in a relentless search for the lowest wages."[55] HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard
The Communist Party believes that "class struggle starts with the fight for wages, hours, benefits, working conditions, job security, and jobs. But it also includes an endless variety of other forms for fighting specific battles: resisting speed-up, picketing, contract negotiations, strikes, demonstrations, lobbying for pro-labor legislation, Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
elections, and even general strikes."[55] The Communist Party's national programs understands that workers who struggle "against the capitalist class or any part of it on any issue with the aim of improving or defending their lives" are part of the class struggle.[55] HP Pavilion dv7-6163us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communists maintain that developments within the foreign policy of the United States–as reflected in the rise of neoconservatives and other groups associated with right-wing politics–have developed in tandem with the interests of large-scale capital such as the multinational corporations. ACER TravelMate 4210 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The state thereby becomes thrust into a proxy role that is essentially inclined to help facilitate "control by one section of the capitalist class over all others and over the whole of society."[55]
Accordingly, the Communist Party holds that right-wing policymakers such as the neoconservatives, steering the state away from working-class interests on behalf of a disproportionately powerful capitalist class, haveToshiba Qosmio G30-167 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"...demonized foreign opponents of the U.S., covertly funded the right-wing-initiated civil war in Nicaragua, and gave weapons to the Saddam Hussein dictatorship in Iraq. They picked small countries to invade, including Panama and Grenada, testing new military equipment and strategy, and breaking down resistance at home and abroad to U.S. military invasion as a policy option."[55] HP 622330-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
From its ideological framework, the Communist Party understands imperialism as the pinnacle of capitalist development: the state, working on behalf of the few who wield disproportionate power, assumes the role of proffering "phony rationalizations" for economically driven imperial ambition as a means to promote the sectional economic interests of big business.[55] Samsung R515 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In opposition to what it considers the ultimate agenda of the conservative wing of U.S. politics, the Communist Party rejects such foreign policy proposals as the Bush Doctrine, rejecting the right of the American government to attack HP MCF-W13BM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"any country it wants, to conduct war without end until it succeeds everywhere, and even to use 'tactical' nuclear weapons and militarize space. Whoever does not support the U.S. policy is condemned as an opponent. Whenever international organizations, such as the United Nations, do not support U.S. government policies, they are reluctantly tolerated until the U.S. government is able to subordinate or ignore them."[55] Toshiba Satellite P300D-20B Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Juxtaposing the support from the Republicans and the right wing of the Democratic Party for the Bush administration-led invasion of Iraq with the many millions of Americans who opposed the invasion of Iraq from its beginning, the Communist Party notes the spirit of opposition towards the war coming from the American public: SONY Vaio VPC-EB3E1E/PI Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"Thousands of grassroots peace committees [were] organized by ordinary Americans... neighborhoods, small towns and universities expressing opposition in countless creative ways. Thousands of actions, vigils, teach-ins and newspaper advertisements were organized. The largest demonstrations were held since the Vietnam War. HP 622330-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
500,000 marched in New York after the war started. Students at over 500 universities conducted a Day of Action for 'Books not Bombs.'
"Over 150 anti-war resolutions were passed by city councils. Resolutions were passed by thousands of local unions and community organizations. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Local and national actions were organized on the Internet, including the 'Virtual March on Washington, D.C.'... officials were flooded with millions of calls, emails and letters.
"In an unprecedented development, large sections of the US labor movement officially opposed the war. In contrast, it took years to build labor opposition to the Vietnam War... HP Pavilion dv6-2170us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Chicago labor leaders formed Labor United for Peace, Justice and Prosperity. They concluded that mass education of their members was essential to counter false propaganda, and that the fight for the peace, economic security and democratic rights was interrelated.[57] Toshiba Satellite A305-S6837 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Party has consistently opposed U.S. involvement in the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the First Gulf War, and the post-September 11 conflicts in bothIraq and Afghanistan.
The Communist Party USA's Constitution defines the working class as a class which is "multiracial, DELL Inspiron B130 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
multinational, and unites men and women, young and old, employed and unemployed, organized and unorganized, gay and straight, native-born and immigrant, urban and rural, and composed of workers who perform a large range of physical and mental labor–the vast majority of our society."[53] HP Pavilion dv6238ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communist Party seeks equal rights for women, equal pay for equal work, the protection of reproductive rights, together with putting an end to sexism.[59] The Party's ranks include a Women's Equality Commission, which recognizes the role of women as an asset in moving towards building socialism.[60] Toshiba Satellite L300D-01P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Historically significant in American history as an early fighter for African Americans' rights and playing a leading role in protesting the lynchings of African Americans in the South, the Communist Party, in its national program today, calls racism the "classic divide-and-conquer tactic...."[61] From its New York City base, ASUS G60V Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
the Communist Party's Ben Davis Club and other Communist Party organizations have been involved in local activism in Harlem and other African American and minority communities.[62] The Communist Party was instrumental in the founding of the progressive Black Radical Congress in 1998. DELL Latitude C840 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Historically significant in Latino working class history as a successful organizer of the Mexican American working class in the Southwestern United States in the 1930s, HP Envy 14-1195la Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
the Communist Party regards working-class Latino people as another oppressed group targeted by overt racism as well as systemic discrimination in areas such as education, and sees the participation of Latino voters in a general mass movement in both party-based and nonpartisan work as an essential goal for major left-wing progress.[63] HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communist Party holds that racial and ethnic discrimination not only harms minorities, but is pernicious to working-class people of all backgrounds, as any discriminatory practices between demographic sections of the working class constitute an inherently divisive practice responsible for "HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
obstructing the development of working-class consciousness, driving wedges in class unity to divert attention from class exploitation, and creating extra profits for the capitalist class."[64]
The Communists support an end to racial profiling.[54] The party supports continued enforcement of civil rights laws as well as affirmative action.[54] HP Envy 14-1195la Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The CPUSA endorsed LGBT rights in a 2005 statement.[65] CPUSA affirmed the resolution with a statement a year later in honor of gay pride month in June 2006.[66]
The Communist Party notes its commitment to participating in environmental movements wherever possible, emphasizing the significance of building unity between the environmental movement and other progressive tendencies.[67] HP G60-230us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Party's most recently released environmental document–the CPUSA National Committee's "2008 Global Warming Report"–takes note of the necessity of "major changes in how we live, move, produce, grow, and market." These changes, the Communists believe, cannot be effectively accomplished solely on the basis of profit considerations: HP Pavilion dv2807nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"They require long-term planning, massive investment in redesigning and re-engineering, collective input, husbanding resources, social investment in research for long-term sustainability, and major conservation efforts...Various approaches blame the victims. DELL Precision M6400 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Supposedly the only solution is to change individual consumer choices, since people in general are claimed to cause the problem. But consumers, workers, and poor people don’t have any say in energy plant construction, in decisions about trade or plant relocation or job export, in deciding on tax subsidies to polluting industries like the oil industry."[68] Compaq Presario C503WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Supporting cooperation between economically advanced and less economically developed nations in the area of environmental cooperation, the Communist Party USA stands in favor of promoting HP Pavilion dv6-2150us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"transfer from developed countries to developing countries of sustainable technology, and funds for capital investment in sustainable agriculture, energy, and industry. We should support efforts to get the developed nations to make major contributions to a fund to protect the rainforests from devastation."[68] HP Pavilion dv5170us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communist Party opposes drilling in the Alaska National Wildlife Refuge,[67] the use of nuclear power until (and unless) there is a safe way to dispose of its waste,[67] and conceives of nuclear war as the greatest possible environmental threat.[67] HP 580696-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
From 1959 until 1989, when Gus Hall attacked the initiatives taken by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union, the CPUSA received a substantial subsidy from the Soviet Union. There is at least one receipt signed by Gus Hall in the KGB archives.[70] Toshiba Satellite L505-144 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Starting with $75,000 in 1959 this was increased gradually to $3 million in 1987. This substantial amount reflected the Party's loyalty to the Moscow line, in contrast to the Italian and later Spanish and BritishCommunist parties, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
whose eurocommunism deviated from the orthodox line in the late 1970s. Releases from the Soviet archives show that all national Communist parties that conformed to the Soviet line were funded in the same fashion. HP Pavilion dv6-2044ca laptop keyboard
From the Communist point of view this international funding arose from the internationalist nature of Communism itself; fraternal assistance was considered the duty of Communists in any one country to give aid to their comrades in other countries. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
From the anti-communist point of view, this funding represented an unwarranted interference by one country in the affairs of another. HP Pavilion DV6t-4000 laptop keyboard
The cutoff of funds in 1989 resulted in a financial crisis, which forced the CPUSA to cut back publication in 1990 of the Party newspaper, the People's Daily World, to weekly publication, the People's Weekly World. (references for this section are provided below) ACER Aspire 4736Z laptop keyboard
Much more controversial than mere funding, however, is the alleged involvement of CPUSA members in espionage for the Soviet Union. Whittaker Chambers has alleged that Sandor Goldberger—also known as "Josef Peters", SONY NSK-S6101 laptop keyboard
who commonly wrote under the name J. Peters—headed the CPUSA's underground secret apparatus from 1932 to 1938 and pioneered its rôle as an auxiliary to Soviet intelligence activities.[71] Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
Bernard Schuster, Organizational Secretary of the New York District of the CPUSA, is claimed to have been the operational recruiter and conduit for members of the CPUSA into the ranks of the secret apparatus, or "Group A line". Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard
Stalin publicly disbanded the Comintern in 1943. A Moscow NKVD message to all stations on September 12, 1943, detailed instructions for handling intelligence sources within the CPUSA after the disestablishment of the Comintern. ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
There are a number of decrypted World War II Soviet messages between NKVD offices in the United States and Moscow, also known as the Venona cables. The Venona cables and other published sources appear to confirm that Julius Rosenberg was responsible for espionage. ASUS V020462CS1 laptop keyboard
Theodore Hall, a Harvard-trainedphysicist who did not join the CPUSA until 1952, began passing information on the atomic bomb to the Soviets soon after he was hired at Los Alamos at age 19. Packard Bell PEW71 laptop keyboard
Hall, who was known as Mlad by his KGB handlers, escaped prosecution. Hall's wife, aware of his espionage, claims that their NKVD handler had advised them to plead innocent, as the Rosenbergs did, if formally charged. ASUS 0KN0-6B1US01 laptop keyboard
It was the belief of opponents of the CPUSA such as J. Edgar Hoover, long-time director of the FBI, and Joseph McCarthy, for whom McCarthyism is named, and other anti-communists that the CPUSA constituted an active conspiracy, was secretive, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
loyal to a foreign power, and whose members assisted Soviet intelligence in the clandestine infiltration of American government. HP Pavilion dv6-2150ev Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
This is the "traditionalist" view of some in the field of Communist studies such as Harvey Klehr and John Earl Haynes, since supported by several memoirs of ex-Soviet KGB officers and information obtained from VENONA and Soviet archives.[72][73][74] HP Pavilion dv7-6195eg Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
At one time this view was shared by the majority of the United States Congress. In the "Findings and declarations of fact" section of the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950 (50 U.S.C. Chap. 23 Sub. IV Sec. 841), it stated, HP 489126-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"although purportedly a political party, is in fact an instrumentality of a conspiracy... prescribed for it by the foreign leaders... to carry into action slavishly the assignments given...acknowledges no constitutional or statutory limitations... HP 533736-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
its dedication to the proposition that the present constitutional Government of the United States ultimately must be brought to ruin by any available means, including resort to force and violence... as the agency of a hostile foreign power renders its existence a clear present and continuing danger."[75] SONY VGN-FE11S laptop keyboard
In 1993, experts from the Library of Congress traveled to Moscow to copy previously secret archives of Communist Party USA (CPUSA) records, sent to the Soviet Union for safekeeping by party organizers. The records provided an irrefutable link between Soviet intelligence and information obtained by the CPUSA and its contacts in the U.S. SONY VAIO VGN-FS285H laptop keyboard
government from the 1920s through the 1940s. Some documents revealed that the CPUSA was actively involved in secretly recruiting party members from African-American groups and rural farm workers. Other CPUSA records contained further evidence that Soviet sympathizers had indeed infiltrated the State Department, HP V100103AS1 laptop keyboard
beginning in the 1930s. Included in CPUSA archival records were confidential letters from two U.S. ambassadors in Europe to Roosevelt and a senior State Department official. Thanks to an official in the State department sympathetic to the Party, the confidential correspondence, concerning political and economic matters in Europe, ended up in the hands of Soviet intelligence.[72][76][77] TOSHIBA Satellite A100 PSAA9L-02Z00C laptop keyboard
When the Communist Party was formed in 1919 the United States government was engaged in prosecution of socialists who had opposed World War I and military service. This prosecution was continued in 1919 and January, Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard
1920 in the Palmer Raids or the red scare. Rank and file foreign-born members of the Party were targeted and as many as possible were arrested and deported; leaders were prosecuted and in some cases sentenced to prison terms. In the late 1930s, TOSHIBA NSK-TK01D laptop keyboard
with the authorization of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) began investigating both domestic Nazis and Communists. Congress passed the Smith Act, which made it illegal to advocate, abet, or teach the desirability of overthrowing the government, in 1940. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ19VN laptop keyboard
In 1949, the federal government put Eugene Dennis, William Z. Foster and ten other CPUSA leaders on trial for advocating the violent overthrow of the government. Because the prosecution could not show that any of the defendants had openly called for violence or been involved in accumulating weapons for a proposed revolution, HP Pavilion dv6-3030er laptop keyboard
it relied on the testimony of former members of the party that the defendants had privately advocated the overthrow of the government and on quotations from the work of Karl Marx, Lenin and other revolutionary figures of the past. During the course of the trial the judge held several of the defendants and all of their counsel in contempt of court. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
All of the remaining eleven defendants were found guilty. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of their convictions by a 6–2 vote in Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951). The government then proceeded with the prosecutions of more than 100 "second string" members of the party. FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
Panicked by these arrests and the fear that it was compromised by informants, Dennis and other party leaders decided to go underground and to disband many affiliated groups. The move only heightened the political isolation of the leadership, while making it nearly impossible for the Party to function. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The widespread support of action against communists and their associates began to abate somewhat after Senator Joseph McCarthy overreached himself in theArmy-McCarthy Hearings, producing a backlash. The end of the Korean War in 1953 also led to a lessening of anxieties about subversion. HP Pavilion dv6-2133ee laptop keyboard
The Supreme Court brought a halt to the Smith Act prosecutions in 1957 in its decision in Yates v. United States, 354 U.S. 298 (1957), which required that the government prove that the defendant had actually taken concrete steps toward the forcible overthrow of the government, rather than merely advocating it in theory. DELL 6DJJC laptop keyboard
The Communist Party USA played a significant role in defending the rights of African-Americans during its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s. Throughout its history many of the Party's leaders and political thinkers have been African Americans. James Ford, Charlene Mitchell, Angela Davis, and Jarvis Tyner, the current executive vice chair of the Party, SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard
all ran as presidential or vice presidential candidates on the Party ticket. Others like Benjamin J. Davis,William L. Patterson, Harry Haywood, James Jackson, Henry Winston, Claude Lightfoot, Alphaeus Hunton, Doxey Wilkerson, Claudia Jones, DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
and John Pittman contributed in important ways to the Party's approaches to major issues from human and civil rights, peace, women's equality, the national question, working class unity, Socialist thought, cultural struggle and more. African American thinkers, artists, and writers such as Claude McKay, Richard Wright,Ann Petry, W. E. B. Du Bois, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Shirley Graham Du Bois, Lloyd Brown, Charles White, Elizabeth Catlett, Paul Robeson, Gwendolyn Brooks, and many more were one-time members or supporters of the Party, and the Communists also had a close alliance with Harlem Congressman Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.[78] The party's work to appeal to African-Americans continues to this day. It was instrumental in the founding of the Black Radical Congress in 1998. Packard Bell PEW76 laptop keyboard
One of America's most prominent sexual radicals, Harry Hay, developed his political views as an active member of the CPUSA, but his founding in the early 1950s of the Mattachine Society, America's second gay rights group, was not seen as something Communists should associate with organizationally. HP 405963-001 laptop keyboard
Most Party members saw homosexuality as something done by those with fascist tendencies (following the lead of the Soviet Union in criminalizing the practice for that reason) and Hay was expelled from the party as an ideological risk. In 2004, the editors of Political Affairs published articles detailing their self-criticism of the Party's early views of gay and lesbian rights[79] and praised Hay's work. SONY VAIO PCG-FR55/B laptop keyboard
The CPUSA endorsed LGBT rights in a 2005 statement.[65] CPUSA affirmed the resolution with a statement a year later in honor of gay pride month in June 2006.[66]
The Communist Party opposed the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, the invasion of Grenada, and U.S. support for anti-communist military dictatorships and movements in Central America. TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6841 laptop keyboard
Meanwhile, some in the peace movement and the New Left rejected the CPUSA for what it saw as the party's bureaucratic rigidity and for its steadfastly close association with the Soviet Union.
The CPUSA was consistently opposed to the U.S.'s HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx laptop keyboard
2003–2012 war in Iraq.[80] United for Peace and Justice, currently the largest peace and justice coalition in the U.S., includes the CPUSA as a member group, with Judith LeBlanc, who chairs the CPUSA's Peace and Solidarity Commission, being a member of the Steering Committee of UFPJ. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
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The Himalayas, or Himalaya, (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə/ or /hɪˈmɑːləjə/; Sanskrit, hima (snow) + ālaya (dwelling), literally, "abode of the snow"[1]) is a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from theTibetan Plateau. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayan range is home to the planet's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. The Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres (23,600 ft) in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres (22,838 ft) SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
tall.[2] The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia. Many Himalayan peaks are sacred in both Buddhism and Hinduism.
Besides the Greater Himalayas of these high peaks there are parallel lower ranges. The first foothills, reaching about a thousand meters along the northern edge of the plains, are called the Sivalik Hills or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north is a higher range reaching two to three thousand meters known as the Lower Himalayan or Mahabharat Range. ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Laptop Keyboard
The Himalayas abut or cross six countries: Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan, with the first three countries having sovereignty over most of the range.[3] The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by theKarakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
· Three of the world's major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, all rise near Mount Kailashand cross and encircle the Himalayas. Their combined drainage basin is home to some 600 million people. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Lifted by the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate,[4] the Himalayan range runs, west-northwest to east-southeast, in an arc 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) long. Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river, its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres (250 mi) in the west to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in the east. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
rainfall and soil conditions combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. For example the extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure) combined with extreme cold allow extremophile organisms to survive.[5] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due toclimate change. The increase in temperature may shift various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
especially rhododendron, apple and Myrica esculenta. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres (16,080 ft) in Southeastern Tibet.[6]
The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogenyalong the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmarand the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision. SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate was moving at about 15 cm per year. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. ACER TravelMate 3232WXMi Laptop Keyboard
Since both plates were composed of low density continental crust, they were thrust faulted and folded into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the mantle along an oceanic trench.[4] An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.[7] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards. The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315Z Laptop Keyboard
During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west.[8] In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 metres (3,300–6,600 ft).[8][9] While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20 to 32 kilometres (12 to 20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60 to 112 kilometres (37 to 70 mi) long during the ice age.[8] HP Pavilion DV7-2177cl laptop keyboard
The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 metres (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least 7.0 to 8.3 °C (12.6 to 14.9 °F) colder than it is today.[10] SONY VAIO VPC-F12 laptop keyboard
The Himalayas have the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and the Arctic.[11] The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 (3000 cubic miles) of fresh water.[12] Its glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region), and Zemu (Sikkim). Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Owing to the mountains' latitude near the Tropic of Cancer, the permanent snow line is among the highest in the world at typically around 5,500 metres (18,000 ft).[13] In contrast, equatorial mountains in New Guinea, the Rwenzoris and Colombiahave SONY VAIO VGN-NW35E/W laptop keyboard
a snow line some 900 metres (2,950 ft) lower.[14] The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems: HP Pavilion dv6-3007tu laptop keyboard
The easternmost Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmarto drain into the Andaman Sea.
The Salween, Mekong, Yangtze and Huang He (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains, TOSHIBA Satellite M640-BT2N23 laptop keyboard
and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the circum-Himalayan rivers.[16] In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of global climate change.[17] For example, DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
Glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers of northern India during the dry seasons.[18] SONY VGN-FE41S laptop keyboard
Some of the lakes present a danger of a glacial lake outburst flood. The Tsho Rolpa glacier lake in the Rolwaling Valley is rated as the most dangerous in Nepal.[19][20]
The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. TOSHIBA 6037B0028502 laptop keyboard
Tilicho lake in Nepal in the Annapurna massif is one of the highest lakes in the world. Pangong Tso, which is spread across the border between India and China, and Yamdrok Tso, located in central Tibet, are amongst the largest with surface areas of 700 km², and 638 km², respectively. Other notable lakes include Gurudogmar lake, inNorth Sikkim, and Tsongmo lake, near the Indo-China border in Sikkim. DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.[21]
The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. They prevent frigid, dry Arctic winds blowing south into the subcontinent, HP Pavilion DV7-2173cl laptop keyboard
which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakanand Gobi.[22] In Hinduism, the Himalayas have been personified as the god Himavat, father of Ganga andParvati.[23] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in Hinduism, Jainism,Sikhism, and Buddhism. A notable example of a religious site is Paro Taktsang, wherePadmasambhava is said to have founded Buddhism in Bhutan.[24] ACER Aspire 1690 laptop keyboard
A number of Tibetan Buddhist sites are situated in the Himalayas, including the residence of the Dalai Lama. There were over 6,000 monasteries in Tibet.[25] The Tibetan Muslims had their own mosques in Lhasa and Shigatse.[26] HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
Tilicho lake is one of the highest lakes in the world.[1] It is 4,949 m high in the Annapurna range of the Himalayas inManang district of Nepal.[2] Another source lists Lake Tilicho as being 4,919 meters high (16,138 feet).[3] FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 laptop keyboard
Mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.[3]
Tilicho Lake is the destination of one of the most popular side hikes of the Annapurna Circuit trek. The hike takes additional 3-4 days. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
No camping is required, as new lodges have been built between Manang and the lake. Final approach to the lake is done in a day hike from the lodge at Tilicho Base Camp.
Trekkers attempting the Annapurna Circuit route usually cross the watershed between Manang and Kali Kandaki valleys over the 5414 meters high Thorong La pass. FUJITSU Siemens M1010 laptop keyboard
The alternate route skirting Tilicho Lake from the north has been gaining popularity. This route is more demanding and requires at least one night of camping. There are no teahouses or lodges past the Tilicho Base Camp lodge some kilometers east of the lake and the next village of Thini Gaon in the Kali Gandaki valley. Compaq Presario CQ62-358TU laptop keyboard
Most groups spend two nights between these places. There are two passes leading to Thini Gaon and Jomsom; Mesokanto La and Tilicho North pass known also as Tilicho "Tourist pass". These routes via Tilicho Lake are more often closed by snow than the higher Thorong La. TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 laptop keyboard
It was also the site of one of the highest ever altitude scuba dives. A Russian diving team consisting of Andrei Andryushin, Denis Bakin and Maxim Gresko conducted a scuba dive in the lake in 2000.[4] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
The upheavals within the CPUSA in 1928 were an echo of a much more significant change: Stalin's decision to break off any form of collaboration with western socialist parties, which were now condemned as "social fascists." This policy had particularly severe consequences in Germany, where the German Communist Party not only refused to work in alliance with the German Social Democratic Party, but attacked it and its members. HP Pavilion DV6-1350us laptop keyboard
The impact of this policy in the U.S. was counted in membership figures. In 1928 there were about 24,000 members. By 1932 the total had fallen to 6,000 members.[18]
Opposing Stalin's Third Period policies in the Communist Party USA was James P. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
Cannon. For this action, he was expelled from the party. He then founded the Communist League of America with Max Shachtman and Martin Abern, and started publishing The Militant. It declared itself to be an external faction of the Communist Party until, as the Trotskyists saw it, Stalin's policies in Germany helped Hitler take power. At that point they started working towards the founding of a new international, the Fourth International. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
In the United States the principal impact of the Third Period was to end the CPUSA's efforts to organize within the AFL through the Trade Union Educational League and to turn its efforts into organizing dual unions through the Trade Union Unity League. DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
By 1930, the party adopted the title of Communist Party of the USA, with the slogan of "the united front from below". The Party devoted much of its energy in the Great Depression to organizing the unemployed, attempting to found "red" unions, championing the rights of African-Americans and fighting evictions of farmers and the working poor.[19] HP Pavilion dv6-3057tx laptop keyboard
At the same time, the Party attempted to weave its sectarian revolutionary politics into its day-to-day defense of workers, usually with only limited success. HP Pavilion DV7-3057nr laptop keyboard
They recruited more disaffected members of the Socialist Party and an organization of African-American socialists called the African Blood Brotherhood, some of whose members, particularly Harry Haywood, would later play important roles in communist work among blacks. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
In 1932, the retiring head of the CPUSA, William Z. Foster, published a book entitled Toward Soviet America, which laid out the Communist Party's plans for revolution and the building of a new socialist society based on the model of Soviet Russia. TOSHIBA Satellite l20-135 laptop keyboard
In that same year Earl Browder became General Secretary of the Party. At first Browder moved the party closer to Soviet interests, and helped to develop its secret apparatus or underground network. He also assisted in the recruitment of espionage sources and agents for the Soviet NKVD. Browder's own younger sister Margerite Toshiba Satellite L30-10X Laptop CPU Fan
was an NKVD operative in Europe until removed from those duties at Browder's request.[20] It was at this point that the CPUSA's foreign policy platform came under the complete control of Stalin, who enforced his directives through his secret police and foreign intelligence service, Toshiba Satellite A300-21H Laptop CPU Fan
the NKVD. The NKVD controlled the secret apparatus of the CPUSA, including responsibility for political murders, kidnappings, and assassinations.[21][22]
The ideological rigidity of the third period began to crack, however, with two events: the election of Franklin D. SONY Vaio VGN-FS415M Laptop CPU Fan
Roosevelt as president of the United States in 1932 and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany in 1933. Roosevelt's election and the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 sparked a tremendous upsurge in union organizing in 1933 and 1934. While the party line still favored creation of autonomous revolutionary unions, HP Pavilion dv6-3109ca Laptop CPU Fan
party activists chose to fold up those organizations and follow the mass of workers into the AFL unions they had been attacking. HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Fan
The Seventh Congress of the Comintern made the change in line official in 1935, when it declared the need for a popular frontof all groups opposed to fascism. The CPUSA abandoned its opposition to the New Deal, provided many of the organizers for theCongress of Industrial Organizations and began supporting African-American civil rights. HP Pavilion dv9547cl Laptop CPU Fan
The party also sought unity with forces to its right. Earl Russell Browder offered to run as Norman Thomas' running mate on a joint Socialist Party-Communist Party ticket in the 1936 presidential election but Thomas rejected this overture. IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 Laptop CPU Fan
The gesture did not mean that much in practical terms, since the CPUSA was, by 1936, effectively supporting Roosevelt in much of his trade union work. While continuing to run its own candidates for office, the CPUSA pursued a policy of representing theDemocratic Party as the lesser evil in elections. Toshiba Satellite P300 Laptop CPU Fan
Party members also rallied to the defense of the Spanish Republic during this period after a Nationalist military uprising moved to overthrow it, resulting in the Spanish Civil War (1936 to 1939). HP Pavilion dv7-4283cl Laptop CPU Fan
The CPUSA, along with leftists throughout the world, raised funds for medical relief while many of its members made their way to Spain with the aid of the party to join the Lincoln Brigade, one of the International Brigades. Among its other achievements, the Lincoln Brigade was the first American military force to include blacks and whites integrated on an equal basis. HP COMPAQ 2510P Series Laptop CPU Fan
Intellectually, the Popular Front period saw the development of a strong communist influence in intellectual and artistic life. This was often through various organizations influenced or controlled by the Party or, as they were pejoratively known, "fronts." HP Pavilion dv6-3126ea Laptop CPU Fan
The CPUSA under Browder supported Stalin's show trials in the Soviet Union, called the Moscow Trials.[23] Therein, between August 1936 and mid-1938 the Soviet government indicted, tried, and shot virtually all of the remaining Old Bolsheviks.[23] Beyond the show trials lay a broader purge, the Great Purge, that killed millions.[23] IBM 41W5269 Laptop CPU Fan
Browder uncritically supported Stalin, likening Trotskyism to "cholera germs" and calling the purge "a signal service to the cause of progressive humanity."[24] He compared the show trial defendants to domestic traitors Benedict Arnold, Aaron Burr, Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX Laptop CPU Fan
disloyal War of 1812 Federalists, and Confederate secessionists, while likening persons who "smeared" Stalin's name to those who had slandered Abraham Lincoln and Franklin Roosevelt.[24] HP Pavilion dv6-2057eo Laptop CPU Fan
The CPUSA was adamantly opposed to fascism during the Popular Front period. Although membership in the CPUSA rose to about 75,000[25] by 1938, many members left the party after the Soviet Union signed theMolotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany on August 23, HP Pavilion dv7-1135nr Laptop CPU Fan
1939.[citation needed]While General Secretary Browder at first attacked Germany for its September 1, 1939 invasion of western Poland, on September 11, the CPUSA received a blunt directive from Moscow denouncing the Polish government.[26] Between September 14–16, CPUSA leaders bickered about the direction to take.[26] IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 Laptop CPU Fan
On September 17 the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[27][28] Toshiba Satellite A100-02M Laptop CPU Fan
The British, French, and German Communist parties, all originally war supporters, abandoned their anti-Fascist crusades, demanded peace, and denounced Allied governments.[29] The CPUSA turned the focus of its public activities from anti-fascism to advocating peace, not only opposing military preparations but also condemning those opposed to Hitler. ACER Aspire 5730Z Series Laptop CPU Fan
[29]
In October and November, after the Soviets invaded Finland and forced mutual assistance pacts from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the CPUSA considered Russian security sufficient justification to support the actions.[30] HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Fan
Secret short wave radio broadcasts in October from Comintern leader Georgi Dimitrov ordered Stalinist Browder to change the CPUSA's support for Roosevelt.[30] On October 23, the CPUSA began attacking Roosevelt.[31] Toshiba Satellite P300-1FN CPU Fan
The CPUSA dropped its boycott of Nazi goods, spread the slogans "The Yanks Are Not Coming" and "Hands Off", set up a "perpetual peace vigil" across the street from the White House and announced that Roosevelt was the head of the "war party of the American bourgeoisie."[31] HP Pavilion dv7-4177nr Laptop CPU Fan
By April 1940, the CPUSA Daily Worker's line seemed not so much antiwar as simply pro-German.[32] A pamphlet stated the Jews had just as much to fear from Britain and France as they did Germany.[32] ACER Aspire One A110-1834 Laptop CPU Fan
In August 1940, after NKVD agent Ramón Mercader killed Leon Trotsky with an ice axe, Browder perpetuated Moscow's fiction that the killer, who had been dating one of Trotsky's secretaries, was a disillusioned follower.[33] HP 580718-001 Laptop CPU Fan
In allegiance to the Soviet Union, the party changed this policy again after Adolf Hitler broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact by attacking the Soviet Unionon June 22, 1941.
Throughout the rest of World War II, the CPUSA continued a policy of militant, if sometimes bureaucratic, trade unionism while opposing strike actions at all costs. Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Fan
The leadership of the CPUSA was among the most vocal pro-war voices in the United States, advocating unity against fascism, supporting the prosecution of leaders of the Socialist Workers Party under the newly enacted Smith Act,[34] and opposing A. Philip Randolph's efforts to organize a march on Washington to dramatize black workers'SONY Vaio VPC-EB4X1E/BQ Laptop CPU Fan
demands for equal treatment on the job. Prominent CPUSA members and supporters, such as Dalton Trumbo and Pete Seeger, recalled anti-war material they had previously released.
Earl Browder expected the wartime coalition between the Soviet Union and the west to bring about a prolonged period of social harmony after the war. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Fan
In order better to integrate the communist movement into American life the party was officially dissolved in 1944 and replaced by a "Communist Political Association".
That harmony proved elusive, however, HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop CPU Fan
and the international Communist movement swung to the left after the war ended. Browder found himself isolated when a critical letter from the leader of the French Communist Party received wide circulation. ACER Aspire 7112WSMi Laptop CPU Fan
In line with other Communist parties worldwide, the CPUSA also swung to the left and, as a result, experienced a brief period in which a number of internal critics argued for a more leftist stance than the leadership was willing to countenance. The result was the expulsion of a handful of "premature anti-revisionists". Toshiba GDM610000277 Laptop CPU Fan
HP Pavilion dv7-6107tx Laptop CPU Fan
More important for the party was the renewal of state persecution of the CPUSA. The Truman administration's loyalty oath program, introduced in 1947, drove some leftists out of federal employment and, more importantly, legitimized the notion of Communists as subversives, to be exposed and expelled from public and private employment. Dell Vostro 3350 Laptop CPU Fan
The House Committee on Un-American Activities, whose hearings were perceived as forums where current and former Communists and those sympathetic to Communism were compelled under the duress of the ruin of their careers to confess and name other Communists, Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Fan
made even brief affiliation with the CPUSA or any related groups grounds for public exposure and attack, inspiring local governments to adopt loyalty oaths and investigative commissions of their own. Private parties, such as the motion picture industry and self-appointed watchdog groups, extended the policy still further. This included the still controversial blacklist of actors, TOSHIBA Mini NB 300 Series Laptop Keyboard
writers and directors in Hollywood who had been Communists or who had fallen in with Communist-controlled or influenced organizations in the pre-war and wartime years.
The union movement purged party members as well. The CIO formally expelled a number of left-led unions in 1949 after internal disputes triggered by the party's support for Henry Wallace's SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard
candidacy for President and its opposition to the Marshall Plan, while other labor leaders sympathetic to the CPUSA either were driven out of their unions or dropped their alliances with the party. DELL Latitude E5500 Laptop Keyboard
In 1949's Foley Square trial, the FBI prosecuted eleven members of the CPUSA's leadership, including Gus Hall and Eugene Dennis. The prosecution argued that the Party endorsed a violent overthrow of the government; but the defendants countered that they advocated for a peaceful transition to socialism, HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard
and that the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech and association protected their membership in a political party. The trial – held in Manhattan'sFoley Square courthouse – was widely publicized by the media, and was featured on the cover of Time magazine twice. TOSHIBA Equium A100 Series Laptop Keyboard
Large numbers of protesters supporting the communist defendants protested outside the courthouse daily. The defense attorneys used a "labor defense" strategy, which attacked the trial as a capitalist venture that would not provide a fair outcome to proletarian defendants. During the trial, SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
the defense routinely antagonized the judge and prosecution, and five of the defendants were sent to jail for contempt of court for disrupting the trial. Public opinion was overwhelmingly against the defendants, and after a ten-month trial, DELL Vostro 3350 Laptop Keyboard
the jury found all 11 defendants guilty, and they were sentenced to terms of five years in federal prison. When the trial concluded, the judge sent all five defense attorneys to jail for contempt of court. Two of the attorneys were subsequently disbarred. ACER Aspire 7736ZG Laptop Keyboard
The government prosecutors, encouraged by their success, arrested and convicted over 100 additional Party officers in the early 1950s.[35]
The widespread fear of Communism became even more acute after the Soviets' detonation of an atomic bomb in 1949 and discovery of Soviet espionage.[36] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
Ambitious politicians, including Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, made names for themselves by exposing or threatening to expose Communists within the Truman administration or later, in McCarthy's case, within the United States Army. Liberal groups, HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
such as the Americans for Democratic Action, not only distanced themselves from communists and communist causes, but defined themselves as anti-communist. Congress outlawed the CPUSA in the Communist Control Act of 1954.[37] HP 517865-031 Laptop Keyboard
However, the act was largely ineffectual thanks in part to its ambiguous language. In the 1961 case, Communist Party v. Catherwood, theUnited States Supreme Court ruled that the act did not bar the party from participating in New York's unemployment insurance system. No administration has tried to enforce it since. Lenovo 0A62039 Laptop Keyboard
By the mid-1950s, membership of Communist Party USA had slipped from its 1944 peak of around 80,000[38] to an active base of approximately 5,000.[39] Some 1,500 of these "members" were FBI informants.[40] DELL Vostro A860 Laptop Keyboard
To the extent that the Communist Party did survive, it was crippled by the penetration activities of these informants, who kept close surveillance on the few remaining legitimate members of the Party on behalf of FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover,[41][42] HP Pavilion DV3000 Laptop Keyboard
and the CPUSA dried up as a base for Soviet espionage.[43] "If it were not for me," Hoover told a State Department official in 1963, "there would not be a Communist Party of the United States. Because I've financed the Communist Party, ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
in order to know what they are doing."[44] William Sullivan, chief of intelligence operations for the FBI in the 1950s, has also described Hoover's continued zeal in pursuing action against the CPUSA as "insincere", as he was fully aware of the Party's moribund condition.[44] Senator McCarthy had also kept up his attacks on the CPUSA during the 1950s despite also being aware of its impotency.[44] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
Against the backdrop of these many setbacks, however, William Z Foster, who was once again in a leadership role after the ouster of Earl Browder, and who, due to his poor health, had not been brought to trial in 1948 along with a number of other members of the party's leadership, wrote his "History of the Communist Party of the United States".[45] SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard
"The Party history is the record of the American class struggle, of which it is a vital part. It is the story, in general, of the growth of the working class; the abolition of slavery and emancipation of the Negro People; the building of the trade union and farmer movements; the numberless strikes and political struggles of the toiling masses; DELL Inspiron M5030 Laptop Keyboard
and the growing political alliance of workers, Negroes, farmers, and intellectuals,"[46] says Foster in the first chapter, illuminating a very different perspective of the party, from within.
The 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary and the Secret Speech of Nikita Khrushchev to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union criticizing Stalin had a cataclysmic effect on the previously Stalinist majority membership CPUSA.[47] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Membership plummeted and the leadership briefly faced a challenge from a loose grouping led by Daily Worker editor John Gates, which wished to democratize the party. Perhaps the greatest single blow dealt to the party in this period was the loss of the Daily Worker, published since 1924, which was suspended in 1958 due to falling circulation. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Most of the critics would depart from the party demoralized, but others would remain active in progressive causes and would often end up working harmoniously with party members. This diaspora rapidly came to provide the audience for publications like the National Guardian and Monthly Review, which were to be important in the development of the New Left in the 1960s. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
The post-1956 upheavals in the CPUSA also saw the advent of a new leadership around former steel worker Gus Hall. Hall's views were very much those of his mentor Foster, but the younger man was to be more rigorous in ensuring the party was completely orthodox than the older man in his last years. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Therefore, while remaining critics who wished to liberalize the party were expelled, so too were anti-revisionist critics who took an anti-Khrushchev stance.
Many of these critics were elements on both U.S. FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 Laptop Keyboard
coasts who would come together to form the Progressive Labor Movement in 1961. Progressive Labor would come to play a role in many of the numerous Maoist organizations of the mid-1960s and early 1970s. Jack Shulman, Foster's secretary TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 Laptop Keyboard
also played a role in these organizations; he was not expelled from the CPUSA, but resigned. In the 1970s, the CPUSA managed to grow in membership to about 25,000 members, despite the exodus of numerous Anti-Revisionist and Maoist groups from its ranks. FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Laptop Keyboard
Ideologically, much appears to be up for grabs[clarification needed], for example regarding China.[48] In a 2002 article in People's Weekly World, CPUSA correspondents Marilyn Bechtel and Debbie Bell said of their trip to the People's Republic of China: "[W]e came away with a new respect for the thoughtfulness, thoroughness, GATEWAY V030946FS1 US Laptop Keyboard
energy and optimism with which the Communist Party of China and the Chinese people are going about the complex, long-term process of building socialism in a vast developing country, which is of necessity part of an increasingly globalized economy."[49] SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard
An overview of the Communist Party's current ideology can be found in the near-definitive report, "Reflections on Socialism", by Sam Webb, the Party's national chair. The article explains the Party's support for a democratic, anti-racist, anti-sexist, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
immediate left-wing change for the United States. The report also covers the fall of the Socialist Bloc, claiming that democracy was not sufficiently developed in these countries. The report states that, "On the one hand, socialism transformed and modernized backward societies, secured important economic and social rights, DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
assisted countries breaking free of colonialism, contributed decisively to the victory over Nazism, constituted by its mere presence a pressure on the ruling classes in the capitalist world to make concessions to their working classes and democratic movements, and acted as a counterweight to the aggressive ambitions of U.S. imperialism for nearly fifty years." DELL Vostro 3350 Laptop Keyboard
The report stresses its dedication to revolutionary struggle, but states that Americans should look for peaceful revolutionary change. Webb says that capitalism cannot solve problems such as economic stagnation, racism, gender discrimination, or poverty. The report explains that there will be many transitory stages from capitalism, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
to socialism, and finally to communism. On the issue of markets in a socialist society, Webb states, "Admittedly, market mechanisms in a socialist society can generate inequality, disproportions and imbalances, destructive competition, HP Pavilion dv6-3040sp Laptop Keyboard
downward pressure on wages, and monopoly cornering of commodity markets – even the danger of capitalist restoration. But this is not sufficient reason for concluding that markets have no place in a socialist economy." HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
The CPUSA recognizes the right of independence-seeking groups, many of whom have been led by communist and communist-oriented partisans, to defend themselves from imperialism, but rejects the use of violence in any United States uprising. The CPUSA argues that most violence throughout modern history is the result of capitalist ruling class violently trying to stop social change.[50] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
While some governments run by people calling themselves Communists have been responsible for horrible acts of violence and repression, notably the Pol Pot regime in Cambodia, much if not most of the violence often blamed on revolutionary governments and parties is actually the responsibility of the conservative, reactionary, capitalist governments and parties. .. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
. Many revolutions have been relatively peaceful, including the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 . The bloodshed comes when those formerly in power initiate a civil war, or foreign armies invade, trying to reestablish capitalist, feudal, or colonial power. … HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
In order to make room for the rental of 4 floors in the CPUSA national building the CPUSA had to move its extensive archives. The archives of the Communist Party USA were donated in March, 2007 to the Tamiment Library at New York University. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
The massive donation, in 12,000 cartons, included history from the founding of the party, 20,000 books and pamphlets, and a million photographs from the archives of the Daily Worker. The Tamiment Library also holds a copy of the microfilmed archive of Communist Party documents from Soviet Archives held by the Library of Congress and from other materials which documents radical and Left history.[51] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
The party's constitution has changed over time. It originally stated "The Communist Party will systematically and persistently propagate the idea of the inevitability of and necessity for violent revolution, and will prepare the workers for armed insurrection as the only means of overthrowing the capitalist state." It further stated, “The Communist Party of America is an underground, illegal organization”[52] SONY VAIO VGN-NR11Z/S Laptop Keyboard
According to its 2001 Constitution, the party operates on the principle of democratic centralism, its highest authority being the quadrennial National Convention. Article VI, Section 3 of the 2001 Constitution lays out certain positions as non-negotiable: DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard
"struggle for the unity of the working class, against all forms of national oppression, national chauvinism, discrimination and segregation, against all racist ideologies and practices… against all manifestations of male supremacy and discrimination against women ... against homophobia and all manifestations of discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people ..."[53] HP Pavilion DV3500 Laptop Keyboard
Among the points in the party's "Immediate Program" are a $12/hour minimum wage for all workers, national universal health care, and opposition toprivatization of Social Security. Economic measures such as increased taxes on "the rich and corporations", "strong regulation" of the financial industry, "COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
regulation and public ownership of utilities", and increased federal aid to cities and states; opposition to the Iraq War and other military interventions; opposition to free trade treaties such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard
nuclear disarmament and a reduced military budget; various civil rights provisions; campaign finance reform including public financing of campaigns; and election law reform, including Instant Runoff Voting.[54] HP Pavilion dv6-2150so Laptop Keyboard
The Communist Party USA emphasizes a vision of socialism as an extension of American democracy. Seeking to "build socialism in the United States based on the revolutionary traditions and struggles" of American history, the CPUSA promotes a conception of "Bill of Rights Socialism" HP AEUT3U00140 Laptop Keyboard
that will "guarantee all the freedoms we have won over centuries of struggle, and also extend the Bill of Rights to include freedom from unemployment"– as well as freedom "from poverty, from illiteracy, and from discrimination and oppression."[55] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard
Reiterating the idea of property rights in socialist society as it is outlined in Marx and Engels's Communist Manifesto,[56] the Communist Party emphasizes that
"Many myths have been propagated about socialism. HP Pavilion dv4-1309tu Laptop Keyboard
Contrary to right-wing claims, socialism would not take away the personal private property of workers", but "the private ownership of major industries, financial institutions, and other large corporations, and the excessive luxuries of the super-rich."[55] HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard
Rather than making all wages entirely equal, the Communist Party USA holds that building socialism would entail "eliminating private wealth from stock speculation, from private ownership of large corporations, from the export of capital and jobs, and from the exploitation of large numbers of workers."[55] SONY 148084521 Laptop Keyboard
Among the primary concerns of the Communist Party are the problems of unemployment, underemployment and job insecurity, which Communism understands as the natural result of the profit-driven incentives of the capitalist economy. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
"Millions of workers are unemployed, underemployed, or insecure in their jobs, even during economic upswings and periods of 'recovery' from recessions. Most workers experience long years of stagnant and declining real wages, HP Mini 210-2037tu Laptop Keyboard
while health and education costs soar. Many workers are forced to work second and third jobs to make ends meet. Most workers now average four different occupations during their lifetime, many involuntarily moved from job to job and career to career. HP Pavilion dm3-1035DX Laptop Keyboard
Often, retirement-age workers are forced to continue working just to provide health care for themselves and their families. Millions of people continuously live below the poverty level; HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
many suffer homelessness and hunger. Public and private programs to alleviate poverty and hunger do not reach everyone, and are inadequate even for those they do reach. With capitalist globalization, jobs move from place to place as capitalists export factories and even entire industries to other countries in a relentless search for the lowest wages."[55] HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard
The Communist Party believes that "class struggle starts with the fight for wages, hours, benefits, working conditions, job security, and jobs. But it also includes an endless variety of other forms for fighting specific battles: resisting speed-up, picketing, contract negotiations, strikes, demonstrations, lobbying for pro-labor legislation, Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
elections, and even general strikes."[55] The Communist Party's national programs understands that workers who struggle "against the capitalist class or any part of it on any issue with the aim of improving or defending their lives" are part of the class struggle.[55] HP Pavilion dv7-6163us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communists maintain that developments within the foreign policy of the United States–as reflected in the rise of neoconservatives and other groups associated with right-wing politics–have developed in tandem with the interests of large-scale capital such as the multinational corporations. ACER TravelMate 4210 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The state thereby becomes thrust into a proxy role that is essentially inclined to help facilitate "control by one section of the capitalist class over all others and over the whole of society."[55]
Accordingly, the Communist Party holds that right-wing policymakers such as the neoconservatives, steering the state away from working-class interests on behalf of a disproportionately powerful capitalist class, haveToshiba Qosmio G30-167 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"...demonized foreign opponents of the U.S., covertly funded the right-wing-initiated civil war in Nicaragua, and gave weapons to the Saddam Hussein dictatorship in Iraq. They picked small countries to invade, including Panama and Grenada, testing new military equipment and strategy, and breaking down resistance at home and abroad to U.S. military invasion as a policy option."[55] HP 622330-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
From its ideological framework, the Communist Party understands imperialism as the pinnacle of capitalist development: the state, working on behalf of the few who wield disproportionate power, assumes the role of proffering "phony rationalizations" for economically driven imperial ambition as a means to promote the sectional economic interests of big business.[55] Samsung R515 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In opposition to what it considers the ultimate agenda of the conservative wing of U.S. politics, the Communist Party rejects such foreign policy proposals as the Bush Doctrine, rejecting the right of the American government to attack HP MCF-W13BM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"any country it wants, to conduct war without end until it succeeds everywhere, and even to use 'tactical' nuclear weapons and militarize space. Whoever does not support the U.S. policy is condemned as an opponent. Whenever international organizations, such as the United Nations, do not support U.S. government policies, they are reluctantly tolerated until the U.S. government is able to subordinate or ignore them."[55] Toshiba Satellite P300D-20B Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Juxtaposing the support from the Republicans and the right wing of the Democratic Party for the Bush administration-led invasion of Iraq with the many millions of Americans who opposed the invasion of Iraq from its beginning, the Communist Party notes the spirit of opposition towards the war coming from the American public: SONY Vaio VPC-EB3E1E/PI Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"Thousands of grassroots peace committees [were] organized by ordinary Americans... neighborhoods, small towns and universities expressing opposition in countless creative ways. Thousands of actions, vigils, teach-ins and newspaper advertisements were organized. The largest demonstrations were held since the Vietnam War. HP 622330-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
500,000 marched in New York after the war started. Students at over 500 universities conducted a Day of Action for 'Books not Bombs.'
"Over 150 anti-war resolutions were passed by city councils. Resolutions were passed by thousands of local unions and community organizations. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Local and national actions were organized on the Internet, including the 'Virtual March on Washington, D.C.'... officials were flooded with millions of calls, emails and letters.
"In an unprecedented development, large sections of the US labor movement officially opposed the war. In contrast, it took years to build labor opposition to the Vietnam War... HP Pavilion dv6-2170us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Chicago labor leaders formed Labor United for Peace, Justice and Prosperity. They concluded that mass education of their members was essential to counter false propaganda, and that the fight for the peace, economic security and democratic rights was interrelated.[57] Toshiba Satellite A305-S6837 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Party has consistently opposed U.S. involvement in the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the First Gulf War, and the post-September 11 conflicts in bothIraq and Afghanistan.
The Communist Party USA's Constitution defines the working class as a class which is "multiracial, DELL Inspiron B130 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
multinational, and unites men and women, young and old, employed and unemployed, organized and unorganized, gay and straight, native-born and immigrant, urban and rural, and composed of workers who perform a large range of physical and mental labor–the vast majority of our society."[53] HP Pavilion dv6238ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communist Party seeks equal rights for women, equal pay for equal work, the protection of reproductive rights, together with putting an end to sexism.[59] The Party's ranks include a Women's Equality Commission, which recognizes the role of women as an asset in moving towards building socialism.[60] Toshiba Satellite L300D-01P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Historically significant in American history as an early fighter for African Americans' rights and playing a leading role in protesting the lynchings of African Americans in the South, the Communist Party, in its national program today, calls racism the "classic divide-and-conquer tactic...."[61] From its New York City base, ASUS G60V Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
the Communist Party's Ben Davis Club and other Communist Party organizations have been involved in local activism in Harlem and other African American and minority communities.[62] The Communist Party was instrumental in the founding of the progressive Black Radical Congress in 1998. DELL Latitude C840 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Historically significant in Latino working class history as a successful organizer of the Mexican American working class in the Southwestern United States in the 1930s, HP Envy 14-1195la Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
the Communist Party regards working-class Latino people as another oppressed group targeted by overt racism as well as systemic discrimination in areas such as education, and sees the participation of Latino voters in a general mass movement in both party-based and nonpartisan work as an essential goal for major left-wing progress.[63] HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communist Party holds that racial and ethnic discrimination not only harms minorities, but is pernicious to working-class people of all backgrounds, as any discriminatory practices between demographic sections of the working class constitute an inherently divisive practice responsible for "HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
obstructing the development of working-class consciousness, driving wedges in class unity to divert attention from class exploitation, and creating extra profits for the capitalist class."[64]
The Communists support an end to racial profiling.[54] The party supports continued enforcement of civil rights laws as well as affirmative action.[54] HP Envy 14-1195la Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The CPUSA endorsed LGBT rights in a 2005 statement.[65] CPUSA affirmed the resolution with a statement a year later in honor of gay pride month in June 2006.[66]
The Communist Party notes its commitment to participating in environmental movements wherever possible, emphasizing the significance of building unity between the environmental movement and other progressive tendencies.[67] HP G60-230us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Party's most recently released environmental document–the CPUSA National Committee's "2008 Global Warming Report"–takes note of the necessity of "major changes in how we live, move, produce, grow, and market." These changes, the Communists believe, cannot be effectively accomplished solely on the basis of profit considerations: HP Pavilion dv2807nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"They require long-term planning, massive investment in redesigning and re-engineering, collective input, husbanding resources, social investment in research for long-term sustainability, and major conservation efforts...Various approaches blame the victims. DELL Precision M6400 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Supposedly the only solution is to change individual consumer choices, since people in general are claimed to cause the problem. But consumers, workers, and poor people don’t have any say in energy plant construction, in decisions about trade or plant relocation or job export, in deciding on tax subsidies to polluting industries like the oil industry."[68] Compaq Presario C503WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Supporting cooperation between economically advanced and less economically developed nations in the area of environmental cooperation, the Communist Party USA stands in favor of promoting HP Pavilion dv6-2150us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"transfer from developed countries to developing countries of sustainable technology, and funds for capital investment in sustainable agriculture, energy, and industry. We should support efforts to get the developed nations to make major contributions to a fund to protect the rainforests from devastation."[68] HP Pavilion dv5170us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Communist Party opposes drilling in the Alaska National Wildlife Refuge,[67] the use of nuclear power until (and unless) there is a safe way to dispose of its waste,[67] and conceives of nuclear war as the greatest possible environmental threat.[67] HP 580696-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
From 1959 until 1989, when Gus Hall attacked the initiatives taken by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union, the CPUSA received a substantial subsidy from the Soviet Union. There is at least one receipt signed by Gus Hall in the KGB archives.[70] Toshiba Satellite L505-144 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Starting with $75,000 in 1959 this was increased gradually to $3 million in 1987. This substantial amount reflected the Party's loyalty to the Moscow line, in contrast to the Italian and later Spanish and BritishCommunist parties, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
whose eurocommunism deviated from the orthodox line in the late 1970s. Releases from the Soviet archives show that all national Communist parties that conformed to the Soviet line were funded in the same fashion. HP Pavilion dv6-2044ca laptop keyboard
From the Communist point of view this international funding arose from the internationalist nature of Communism itself; fraternal assistance was considered the duty of Communists in any one country to give aid to their comrades in other countries. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
From the anti-communist point of view, this funding represented an unwarranted interference by one country in the affairs of another. HP Pavilion DV6t-4000 laptop keyboard
The cutoff of funds in 1989 resulted in a financial crisis, which forced the CPUSA to cut back publication in 1990 of the Party newspaper, the People's Daily World, to weekly publication, the People's Weekly World. (references for this section are provided below) ACER Aspire 4736Z laptop keyboard
Much more controversial than mere funding, however, is the alleged involvement of CPUSA members in espionage for the Soviet Union. Whittaker Chambers has alleged that Sandor Goldberger—also known as "Josef Peters", SONY NSK-S6101 laptop keyboard
who commonly wrote under the name J. Peters—headed the CPUSA's underground secret apparatus from 1932 to 1938 and pioneered its rôle as an auxiliary to Soviet intelligence activities.[71] Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
Bernard Schuster, Organizational Secretary of the New York District of the CPUSA, is claimed to have been the operational recruiter and conduit for members of the CPUSA into the ranks of the secret apparatus, or "Group A line". Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard
Stalin publicly disbanded the Comintern in 1943. A Moscow NKVD message to all stations on September 12, 1943, detailed instructions for handling intelligence sources within the CPUSA after the disestablishment of the Comintern. ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
There are a number of decrypted World War II Soviet messages between NKVD offices in the United States and Moscow, also known as the Venona cables. The Venona cables and other published sources appear to confirm that Julius Rosenberg was responsible for espionage. ASUS V020462CS1 laptop keyboard
Theodore Hall, a Harvard-trainedphysicist who did not join the CPUSA until 1952, began passing information on the atomic bomb to the Soviets soon after he was hired at Los Alamos at age 19. Packard Bell PEW71 laptop keyboard
Hall, who was known as Mlad by his KGB handlers, escaped prosecution. Hall's wife, aware of his espionage, claims that their NKVD handler had advised them to plead innocent, as the Rosenbergs did, if formally charged. ASUS 0KN0-6B1US01 laptop keyboard
It was the belief of opponents of the CPUSA such as J. Edgar Hoover, long-time director of the FBI, and Joseph McCarthy, for whom McCarthyism is named, and other anti-communists that the CPUSA constituted an active conspiracy, was secretive, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
loyal to a foreign power, and whose members assisted Soviet intelligence in the clandestine infiltration of American government. HP Pavilion dv6-2150ev Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
This is the "traditionalist" view of some in the field of Communist studies such as Harvey Klehr and John Earl Haynes, since supported by several memoirs of ex-Soviet KGB officers and information obtained from VENONA and Soviet archives.[72][73][74] HP Pavilion dv7-6195eg Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
At one time this view was shared by the majority of the United States Congress. In the "Findings and declarations of fact" section of the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950 (50 U.S.C. Chap. 23 Sub. IV Sec. 841), it stated, HP 489126-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"although purportedly a political party, is in fact an instrumentality of a conspiracy... prescribed for it by the foreign leaders... to carry into action slavishly the assignments given...acknowledges no constitutional or statutory limitations... HP 533736-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
its dedication to the proposition that the present constitutional Government of the United States ultimately must be brought to ruin by any available means, including resort to force and violence... as the agency of a hostile foreign power renders its existence a clear present and continuing danger."[75] SONY VGN-FE11S laptop keyboard
In 1993, experts from the Library of Congress traveled to Moscow to copy previously secret archives of Communist Party USA (CPUSA) records, sent to the Soviet Union for safekeeping by party organizers. The records provided an irrefutable link between Soviet intelligence and information obtained by the CPUSA and its contacts in the U.S. SONY VAIO VGN-FS285H laptop keyboard
government from the 1920s through the 1940s. Some documents revealed that the CPUSA was actively involved in secretly recruiting party members from African-American groups and rural farm workers. Other CPUSA records contained further evidence that Soviet sympathizers had indeed infiltrated the State Department, HP V100103AS1 laptop keyboard
beginning in the 1930s. Included in CPUSA archival records were confidential letters from two U.S. ambassadors in Europe to Roosevelt and a senior State Department official. Thanks to an official in the State department sympathetic to the Party, the confidential correspondence, concerning political and economic matters in Europe, ended up in the hands of Soviet intelligence.[72][76][77] TOSHIBA Satellite A100 PSAA9L-02Z00C laptop keyboard
When the Communist Party was formed in 1919 the United States government was engaged in prosecution of socialists who had opposed World War I and military service. This prosecution was continued in 1919 and January, Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard
1920 in the Palmer Raids or the red scare. Rank and file foreign-born members of the Party were targeted and as many as possible were arrested and deported; leaders were prosecuted and in some cases sentenced to prison terms. In the late 1930s, TOSHIBA NSK-TK01D laptop keyboard
with the authorization of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) began investigating both domestic Nazis and Communists. Congress passed the Smith Act, which made it illegal to advocate, abet, or teach the desirability of overthrowing the government, in 1940. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ19VN laptop keyboard
In 1949, the federal government put Eugene Dennis, William Z. Foster and ten other CPUSA leaders on trial for advocating the violent overthrow of the government. Because the prosecution could not show that any of the defendants had openly called for violence or been involved in accumulating weapons for a proposed revolution, HP Pavilion dv6-3030er laptop keyboard
it relied on the testimony of former members of the party that the defendants had privately advocated the overthrow of the government and on quotations from the work of Karl Marx, Lenin and other revolutionary figures of the past. During the course of the trial the judge held several of the defendants and all of their counsel in contempt of court. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
All of the remaining eleven defendants were found guilty. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of their convictions by a 6–2 vote in Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951). The government then proceeded with the prosecutions of more than 100 "second string" members of the party. FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
Panicked by these arrests and the fear that it was compromised by informants, Dennis and other party leaders decided to go underground and to disband many affiliated groups. The move only heightened the political isolation of the leadership, while making it nearly impossible for the Party to function. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The widespread support of action against communists and their associates began to abate somewhat after Senator Joseph McCarthy overreached himself in theArmy-McCarthy Hearings, producing a backlash. The end of the Korean War in 1953 also led to a lessening of anxieties about subversion. HP Pavilion dv6-2133ee laptop keyboard
The Supreme Court brought a halt to the Smith Act prosecutions in 1957 in its decision in Yates v. United States, 354 U.S. 298 (1957), which required that the government prove that the defendant had actually taken concrete steps toward the forcible overthrow of the government, rather than merely advocating it in theory. DELL 6DJJC laptop keyboard
The Communist Party USA played a significant role in defending the rights of African-Americans during its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s. Throughout its history many of the Party's leaders and political thinkers have been African Americans. James Ford, Charlene Mitchell, Angela Davis, and Jarvis Tyner, the current executive vice chair of the Party, SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard
all ran as presidential or vice presidential candidates on the Party ticket. Others like Benjamin J. Davis,William L. Patterson, Harry Haywood, James Jackson, Henry Winston, Claude Lightfoot, Alphaeus Hunton, Doxey Wilkerson, Claudia Jones, DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
and John Pittman contributed in important ways to the Party's approaches to major issues from human and civil rights, peace, women's equality, the national question, working class unity, Socialist thought, cultural struggle and more. African American thinkers, artists, and writers such as Claude McKay, Richard Wright,Ann Petry, W. E. B. Du Bois, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Shirley Graham Du Bois, Lloyd Brown, Charles White, Elizabeth Catlett, Paul Robeson, Gwendolyn Brooks, and many more were one-time members or supporters of the Party, and the Communists also had a close alliance with Harlem Congressman Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.[78] The party's work to appeal to African-Americans continues to this day. It was instrumental in the founding of the Black Radical Congress in 1998. Packard Bell PEW76 laptop keyboard
One of America's most prominent sexual radicals, Harry Hay, developed his political views as an active member of the CPUSA, but his founding in the early 1950s of the Mattachine Society, America's second gay rights group, was not seen as something Communists should associate with organizationally. HP 405963-001 laptop keyboard
Most Party members saw homosexuality as something done by those with fascist tendencies (following the lead of the Soviet Union in criminalizing the practice for that reason) and Hay was expelled from the party as an ideological risk. In 2004, the editors of Political Affairs published articles detailing their self-criticism of the Party's early views of gay and lesbian rights[79] and praised Hay's work. SONY VAIO PCG-FR55/B laptop keyboard
The CPUSA endorsed LGBT rights in a 2005 statement.[65] CPUSA affirmed the resolution with a statement a year later in honor of gay pride month in June 2006.[66]
The Communist Party opposed the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, the invasion of Grenada, and U.S. support for anti-communist military dictatorships and movements in Central America. TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6841 laptop keyboard
Meanwhile, some in the peace movement and the New Left rejected the CPUSA for what it saw as the party's bureaucratic rigidity and for its steadfastly close association with the Soviet Union.
The CPUSA was consistently opposed to the U.S.'s HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx laptop keyboard
2003–2012 war in Iraq.[80] United for Peace and Justice, currently the largest peace and justice coalition in the U.S., includes the CPUSA as a member group, with Judith LeBlanc, who chairs the CPUSA's Peace and Solidarity Commission, being a member of the Steering Committee of UFPJ. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
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