Ivan the Terrible
Ivan IV Vasilyevich (Russian: Ива́н Васи́льевич; 25 August 1530 – 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584),[1] Toshiba Satellite A210-1BC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
commonly known asIvan the Terrible (Russian: Ива́н Гро́зный (help•info), Ivan Grozny), was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All the Russias from 1547 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan,Astrakhan, HP G62-b15EL Laptop Keyboard
and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres, approximately 4,046,856 km2 (1,562,500 sq mi).[2] Ivan managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Historic sources present disparate accounts of Ivan's complex personality: he was described as intelligent and devout, yet given to rages and prone to episodic outbreaks of mental illness. In one such outburst he killed his groomed and chosen heir Ivan Ivanovich. This left the Tsardom to be passed to Ivan's younger son, the weak and intellectually disabled[3] HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev Laptop Keyboard
Feodor Ivanovich. Ivan's legacy is complex: he was an able diplomat, a patron of arts and trade, founder of Russia's first Print Yard, a leader highly popular among the common people of Russia, but he is also remembered for hisparanoia and arguably harsh treatment of the nobility. HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny in Ivan's nickname, but the modern English usage of terrible, with a pejorative connotation of bad or evil, does not precisely represent the intended meaning. HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
The meaning of grozny is closer to the original usage of terrible—inspiring fear or terror, dangerous (as inOld English in one's danger), formidable or threatening, tough, strict, authoritative. V. HP Mini 110-3519la Laptop Keyboard
Dal defines groznyspecifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "courageous, magnificent, magisterial, and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience".[4] Other translations were also suggested by modern scholars.[5][6][7] ASUS F80Q Laptop Keyboard
Ivan was the son of Vasili III and his second wife, Elena Glinskaya. When Ivan was three years old, his father died from a boil and inflammation on his leg which developed into blood poisoning. Ivan was proclaimed the Grand Prince of Moscowat his father's request. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
At first, his mother Elena Glinskaya acted as regent, but she died of what many believe to be assassination by poison[8][9] when Ivan was only eight years old. According to his own letters, Ivan, along with his younger brother Yuri, often felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the Shuisky and Belsky families. HP G62-b20SS Laptop Keyboard
Ivan was crowned with Monomakh's Cap at the Cathedral of the Dormition at age 16 on 16 January 1547. He was the first person to be crowned as "Tsar of All the Russias", hence claiming the ancestry of Kievan Rus. ASUS A3000E Laptop Keyboard
Prior to that, rulers of Muscovy were crowned as Grand Princes, although Ivan III the Great, his grandfather, styled himself "tsar" in his correspondence.
By being crowned Tsar, Ivan was sending a message to the world and to Russia: he was now the one and only supreme ruler of the country, and his will was not to be questioned. ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard
"The new title symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by former Byzantine Emperor and the Tatar Khan, both known in Russian sources as Tsar. The political effect was to elevate Ivan's position."[10] SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard
The new title not only secured the throne, but it also granted Ivan a new dimension of power, one intimately tied to religion. He was now a "divine" leader appointed to enact God's will, "church texts described Old Testament kings as 'Tsars' and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar."[11] FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 Laptop Keyboard
The newly appointed title was then passed on from generation to generation, "succeeding Muscovite rulers...benefited from the divine nature of the power of the Russian monarch...crystallized during Ivan's reign."[12] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Despite calamities triggered by the Great Fire of 1547, the early part of Ivan's reign was one of peaceful reforms and modernization. Ivan revised the law code, creating the Sudebnik of 1550, founded a standing army (the streltsy),[13] SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
established the Zemsky Sobor (the first Russian parliament of the feudal Estates type), the council of the nobles (known as the Chosen Council), and confirmed the position of the Church with the Council of the Hundred Chapters, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
which unified the rituals and ecclesiastical regulations of the whole country. He introduced local self-government to rural regions, mainly in the northeast of Russia, populated by the state peasantry. DELL Inspiron E1405 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
By Ivan's order in 1553 the Moscow Print Yard was established and the first printing press was introduced to Russia. The 1550s and 1560s saw the printing of several religious books in Russian. The new technology provoked discontent with traditional scribes, DELL DFS541305MH0T Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
which led to the Print Yard being burned in an arson attack and the first Russian printers Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets being forced to flee from Moscow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Nevertheless, printing of books resumed from 1568 onwards, with Andronik Timofeevich Nevezha and his son Ivan now heading the Print Yard. HP G62-341NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Ivan had St. Basil's Cathedral constructed in Moscow to commemorate the seizure of Kazan. Legend has it that he was so impressed with the structure that he had the architect, Postnik Yakovlev, blinded so that he could never design anything as beautiful again. HP Pavilion dv6648el Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In reality, Postnik Yakovlev went on to design more churches for Ivan and Kazan's Kremlin walls in the early 1560s, as well as the chapel over St. Basil's grave that was added to St. Basil's Cathedral in 1588, several years after Ivan's death. Toshiba Satellite P100-386 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Although more than one architect was associated with this name and constructions, it is believed that the principal architect is one and the same person.[14][15][16] HP Pavilion dv7-6151ed Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other events of this period include the introduction of the first laws restricting the mobility of the peasants, which would eventually lead to serfdom.
Conditions under Oprichnina were worsened by the 1570 epidemics of plague that killed 10,000 people in Novgorod. In Moscow it killed 600–1000 daily.[23] HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
During the grim conditions of the epidemics, famine and ongoing Livonian war, Ivan grew suspicious that noblemen of the wealthy city of Novgorod were planning to defect, placing the city itself into the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. HP G60-230us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In 1570 Ivan ordered the Oprichniki to raid the city. The Oprichniki burned and pillaged Novgorod and the surrounding villages, and the city was never to regain its former prominence.[24]
Casualty figures vary greatly in different sources. The First Pskov Chronicle estimates the number of victims at 60,000.[24][25][26][26] HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Yet the official death toll named 1,500 of Novgorod's big people (nobility) and mentioned only about the same number of smaller people. Many modern researchers estimate the number of victims to range from 2000–3000 (after the famine and epidemics of 1560s the population of Novgorod most likely did not exceed 10,000–20,000).[27] SONY Vaio VPC-EB1E0E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Many survivors were deported elsewhere.
Oprichnina did not live long after the sack of Novgorod. During the 1571–1572 Russo-Crimean war, oprichniks failed to prove themselves worthy against a regular army. In 1572, Ivan abolished the Oprichnina and disbanded his oprichniks. Compaq Presario CQ70-220EO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In 1547 Hans Schlitte, the agent of Ivan, recruited craftsmen in Germany for work in Russia. However all these craftsmen were arrested in Lübeck at the request of Poland and Livonia. The German merchant companies ignored the new port built by Ivan on the river Narva in 1550 and continued to deliver goods in the Baltic ports owned by Livonia. Russia remained isolated from sea trade. HP Pavilion dv7-3060sb Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Ivan established very close ties with England. Russo-English relations can be traced to 1553, when Richard Chancellor sailed to the White Sea and continued overland to Moscow. Upon his return to England in 1555, the Muscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby, and several London merchants. ACER Aspire 7720 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Ivan opened up the White Sea and the port ofArkhangelsk to the Company and granted the Company privilege of trading throughout his reign without paying the standard customs fees.[28] Muscovy Company retained the monopoly in Russo-English trade until 1698. SONY UDQF2PH52CF0 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
With the use of English merchants, Ivan engaged in a long correspondence with Queen Elizabeth. While the queen focused on commerce, Ivan was more interested in a military alliance. During his troubled relations with the boyars, the tsar even asked her for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised.
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In response to a letter of Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria asking the Tsar for financial assistance for the Monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai, which had suffered from the Turks, Ivan IV sent in 1558 a delegation to Egypt led by archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. Toshiba Satellite A215-S5802 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
From then on the embassy was headed by Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov. Poznyakov's delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo and Sinai, brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by the Tsar and left an interesting account of its 2.5 years of travels.[29] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
While Ivan IV was a minor, armies of the Kazan Khanate repeatedly raided the northeast of Russia,[30] In the 1530s the Crimean khan formed an offensive alliance with Safa Giray of Kazan, his relative. When Safa Giray invaded Muscovy in December 1540, the Russians used Qasim Tatars to contain him. After his advance was stalled near Murom, Safa Giray was forced to withdraw to his own borders. HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev laptop keyboard
These reverses undermined Safa Giray's authority in Kazan. A pro-Russian party, represented by Shahgali, gained enough popular support to make several attempts to take over the Kazan throne. In 1545 Ivan IV mounted an expedition to the Volga River to show his support for pro-Russian factions. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215B laptop keyboard
In 1551 the tsar sent his envoy to the Nogai Horde and they promised to maintain neutrality during the impending war. The Ar begs and Udmurts submitted to Russian authority as well. In 1551 the wooden fort of Sviyazhsk was transported down the Volga from Uglich all the way to Kazan. It was used as the Russian place d'armes during the decisive campaign of 1552. Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
On 16 June 1552 Ivan IV led a 150,000-strong Russian army towards Kazan. The last siege of the Tatar capital was commenced on 30 August. Under the supervision of Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky, the Russians used ram weapons, a battery-tower,mines, and 150 cannons. The Russians also had the advantage of efficient military engineers. HP Mini 110-3519la laptop keyboard
The city's water supply was blocked and the walls were breached. Kazan finally fell on 2 October, its fortifications were razed, and much of the population massacred. About 60,000 – 100,000 Russian prisoners and slaves were released. The Tsar celebrated his victory over Kazan by building several churches with oriental features, most famously Saint Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow. HP Pavilion DV6t-4000 laptop keyboard
Ivan IV before the seizure of Kazan encouraged his army by the examples of Georgian Queen Tamar's battles[31] by describing her as: "The most wise Queen of Iberia, endowed with the intelligence and courage of a man".[32] ASUS A3000E laptop keyboard
The fall of Kazan had as its primary effect the outright annexation of the Middle Volga. The Bashkirs accepted Ivan IV's authority two years later. In 1556 Ivan annexed the Astrakhan Khanate and destroyed the largest slave market on the river Volga. ASUS A6Jc laptop keyboard
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These conquests complicated the migration of the aggressive nomadic hordes from Asia to Europe through Volga. As a result of the Kazan campaigns, Muscovy was transformed into the multinational and multi-faith state of Russia. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
In 1556, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible, who had a new fortress built on a steep hill overlooking the Volga. In 1568 the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, who was the real power in the administration of the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim, initiated the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival. FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 laptop keyboard
The results presaged the many disasters to come. A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal was detailed in Constantinople and in the summer of 1569 a large force under Kasim Paşa of 1,500 Janissaries, 2,000 Spakhs, and few thousand Azaps, and Akıncıs, were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. SONY Vaio PCG-K33F laptop keyboard
Early in 1570, the ambassadors of Ivan IV of Russia concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar.
Having rejected peace proposals from his enemies, Ivan IV found himself in a difficult position by 1579. The displaced refugees fleeing the war compounded the effects of the simultaneous drought, and exacerbated war engendered epidemics, causing much loss of life. SONY VAIO VGN-NW350F laptop keyboard
Altogether the prolonged war had nearly destroyed the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while TheGrand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland and acquired an energetic leader, HP 580030-001 Laptop Keyboard
Stefan Batory, who was supported by Russia's southern enemy, the Ottoman Empire (1576). Ivan's realm was now being squeezed by two of the great powers of the time. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
After negotiations with Ivan failed, Batory launched a series of offensives against Muscovy in the campaign seasons of 1579–1581, trying to cut The Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovite territories. During his first offensive in 1579, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
he retookPolotsk with 22,000 men. During the second, in 1580, he took Velikie Luki with a 29,000-strong force. Finally, he began theSiege of Pskov in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army. Narva in Estonia was reconquered by Sweden in 1581. HP 489126-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Unlike Sweden and Poland, Denmark under Frederick II had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy. He came to an agreement with John III of Sweden, in 1580, transferring the Danish titles of Livonia to him. DELL Studio 1458 laptop keyboard
Muscovy recognized Polish-Lithuanian control of Livonia only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland, brother of Fredrick II and former ally of Ivan, died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Saaremaa, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
In late years of Ivan's reign southern borders of Muscovy were disturbed by Crimean Tatars. Khan Devlet I Giray of Crimea repeatedly raided the Moscow region. In 1571, the 40,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army launched a large-scale raid. SONY VGN-FE11S laptop keyboard
Due to ongoing Livonian war, Moscow's garrison was as small as 6,000, and could not even delay the Tatar approach. Unresisted, Devlet devastated unprotected towns and villages around Moscow and set Moscow on fire. Historians estimate the number of casualties of the fire from 10,000 to as many 80,000 people. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
To buy peace from Devlet Giray, Ivan was forced to relinquish his rights on Astrakhan in favor of Crimean Khanate (although this proposed transfer was only a diplomatic maneuver and was never actually complete). This defeat angered Ivan. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Upon his orders, between 1571 and 1572 preparations were made. In addition toZasechnaya cherta, innovative fortifications were set beyond the river Oka that defined the border.
Next year Devlet launched another raid on Moscow, now with 120,000-strong[33] HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
horde, equipped with cannons and reinforced by Turkish janissaries. On 26 July 1572 the horde crossed the Oka River near Serpukhov, destroyed the Russian vanguard of 200 noblemen and advanced towards Moscow. GATEWAY MX8711 laptop keyboard
The Russian army, led by Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, was half the size, estimated at between 60,000–70,000 men, yet it was an experienced streltsi army, equipped with modern firearms and gulyay-gorods. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
On 30 July the armies clashed near the Lopasnya River in what will be known as the Battle of Molodi, that continued for more than a week. The outcome was decisive Russian victory. The Crimean horde was defeated so thoroughly that both the Ottoman Sultan and theCrimean khan, his vassal, had to give up their ambitious plans of northward expansion into Russia. HP Pavilion dv4-1211tu laptop keyboard
During Ivan's reign, Russia started a large-scale exploration and colonization of Siberia. In 1555, shortly after the conquest of Kazan, Siberian khan Yadegar and Nogai khan Ismail pledged their allegiance to Ivan, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51e 1844 laptop keyboard
in hope that he would help them against their opponents. However, Yadegar failed to gather the full sum of tribute he proposed to the tsar, so Ivan did nothing to save his inefficient vassal. in 1563 Yadegar was overthrown and killed by khan Kuchum, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
who denied any tribute to Moscow.
In 1558 Ivan gave the Stroganov merchant family patent for colonizing "the abundant region along the Kama River", HP G72-b66US laptop keyboard
and in 1574 lands over the Ural Mountainsalong the rivers Tura and Tobol. They also received permission to build forts along the Ob and Irtysh rivers. Around 1577, the Stroganovs hired the Cossack leader Yermak Timofeyevich to protect their lands from attacks of the Siberian Khan Kuchum. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
In 1580 Yermak started his conquest of Siberia. With some 540 Cossacks he started to penetrate territories that were tributary to Kuchum. Yermak pressured and persuaded the various family-based tribes to change their loyalties and become tributaries of Russia. Some agreed voluntarily, under better terms than with Kuchum, Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
other were forced. He also established distant forts in the newly conquered lands. The campaign was successful, and cossacks managed to defeat the Siberian army in the Battle of Chuvash Cape, but Yermak was still in need for reinforcements. Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2522 laptop keyboard
He sent an envoy to Ivan the Terrible, with a message that proclaimed Yermak-conquered Siberia a part of Russia, to the dismay of the Stroganovs, who planned to keep Siberia for themselves. Ivan agreed to reinforce the cossacks with his streltsi. SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
Yermak's conquest expanded Ivan's empire to the east and allowed him to style himself "Tsar of Siberia" in the tsar's very last years.
The Moscow Print Yard (Russian: Московский Печатный двор) was the first publishing house in Russia.[1] It was established in Kitai-gorod at the behest of Ivan the Terrible in 1553. The historic headquarters of the Print Yard now house the Russian State University for the Humanities. DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
Moscow Print Yard was first mentioned in Aufzeichnungen über den Moskauer Staat by Heinrich von Staden. It is known to have published Lenten Triodion, Triodion in Pictures, Gospel, Psalter, and other books, which didn't have any imprints (hence, another bookish name of the Print Yard - Anonymous Printing House). HP Pavilion DV3506la Laptop Keyboard
On March 1 of 1564, Ivan Fyodorov and Pyotr Timofeyev (Mstislavets) published the very first dated book called Apostle(Апостол) at the Moscow Print Yard. In 1565, the printing house published Chasovnik (Часовник, orBook of hours) and then Psalter (1568). ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
In 1612, Moscow Print Yard was destroyed by fire, but soon it would be rebuilt. In 1620, they erected a two-story stone chamber for the Print Yard, moving seven typesetters and eighty employees from the Kremlin to the new premises. APPLE ibook g4 14 inch Laptop Keyboard
In 1625, they built several underground storage rooms and tunnels leading to the Kremlin. The fire of 1634 destroyed all of the buildings belonging to the Print Yard. In 1642–1643, they built several new stone chambers for the publishing house under the supervision of an apprentice from Stoneworks Prikaz named T.Shaturin. HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard
In 1644, an apprentice I.Neverov and a foreigner named Christopher erected Gothic stone gates with towers, which divided the chambers of the Print Yard in two. These buildings housed the Bookprinting Prikaz and Proofreading Chamber. In 1679, they dismantled the so-called old "Big Chamber" building in the Print Yard, SONY 148096222 Laptop Keyboard
which was adjacent to the wall of Kitai-gorod. Stonemasons S.Dmitriyev and I.Artemyev supervised the erection of a new building over the old foundation, which would later be painted by a court icon painter L.Ivanov and house the Proofreading Chamber and a library. HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard
In 1653, Patriarch Nikon (who supervised the work of the Print Yard) sent a scientific expedition to the East. Its leader A.Sukhanov brought five hundred Greek manuscripts from Mount Athos to Moscow. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E Laptop Keyboard
These books laid the foundation for the library of the Moscow Print Yard. In 1681, they opened a Greek school on the premises of the printing house. By the end of the 17th century, the staff of the Print Yard had already numbered 165 people. HP 517865-031 Laptop Keyboard
It was placed under the authority of the Big Palace Prikaz (Приказ Большого дворца) and published the so-called menology books (Анфологион, or Anfologion, 1660), polemical works, translations, textbooks (Букварь, or Primer by Vasily Burtsov-Protopopov, 1634; Грамматика, or Grammar by Meletiy Smotritsky, HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard
1648;Арифметика, or Arithmetics by Leonty Magnitsky, 1703 etc.). All in all, the Moscow Print Yard published 30 books (1000 copies each) between the late 16th – early 17th centuries. Proofreaders Andronik Timofeyev Nevezha and Ivan Andronikov Nevezha influenced the formation of a certain style of Moscow Cyrillic editions of the 17th century. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
Karion Istomin is known to have worked at the Print Yard first as a proofreader (since 1682) and then its inspector (1698-1701).
In 1703–1711, the Moscow Print Yard published the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti. In 1710, proofreader Fyodor Polikarpov-Orlov(future director of the publishing house in 1726-1731) DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard
presented a copy of the Alphabet (Азбука) with the pictures of ancient and contemporary Slavonic letters to Peter the Great. In 1564–1711, the Moscow Print Yard published approximately 700 kinds of books (some of them, such as the Alphabet, reached 10,000 copies in 1657-1677). SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard
In 1721, the Print Yard was transferred under the authority of Most Holy Synod, its publishing house being transformed into Synodal. In the middle of the 18th century, they constructed thebaroque-style side housing together with the printing and library premises, COMPAQ Presario CQ40-145TU Laptop Keyboard
which would close the perimeter of the yard (architectsIvan Fyodorovich Michurin and Dmitry Ukhtomsky). In late 18th – early 19th century, the Print Yard building on Nikolskaya Street were dismantled and replaced with a monumental edifice of the Synodal Publishing House (1811-1815, DELL Inspiron 630m Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
architect Ivan Mironovsky). In the 19th century, the buildings of the publishing house were perceived as a single architectural ensemble with the towers and walls of Kitai-gorod, with the add-ons and alterations by future generation architects (Mikhail Chichagov, Nikolai Artleben, S.Slutsky and others). TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5244 laptop keyboard
The state monopoly on publishing continued until 1783 when some private publishing was permitted with great reluctance, although the state continued to exercise complete control through censorship. Some reforms occurred in 1861, but it was not until 1905 that greater freedom of the press was granted. HP Mini 210-2090nr laptop keyboard
A multinational state is a sovereign state which is viewed as comprising two or more nations. Such a state contrasts with a nation-state where a single nation comprises the bulk of the population. The United Kingdom, TOSHIBA Tecra M10-S3454 laptop keyboard
the Russian Federation, India, South Africa and Canada are viewed as present-day examples of multinational states, while Austria-Hungary, USSR and Yugoslavia are examples of historical multinational states which have since split into a number of sovereign states. HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
Depending on the definitions of such terms as "nation" a multinational state may or may not be multicultural and / or multilingual.
Many attempts have been made to define what a multinational state is. One complicating factor is that it is possible for many of the people of what can be considered a 'nation' to consider they have two different nationalities simultaneously. As Ilan Peleg has noted, HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
One can be a Scot and a Brit in the United Kingdom, a Jew and an American in the United States, an Igbo and a Nigerian in Nigeria... One might find it hard to be a Slovak and a Hungarian, an Arab and an Israeli, a Breton and a Frenchman.[1] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
A state may also be a society, and a multiethnic society has people belonging to more than one ethnic group, in contrast to societies which are ethnicallyhomogeneous. By some definitions of "society" and "homogeneous", HP Mini 210-1073TU laptop keyboard
virtually all contemporary national societies are multiethnic. One scholar argued in 1993 that fewer than 20 of the then 180 sovereign states could be said to be ethnically and nationally homogeneous, SONY Vaio VGN-FW280J laptop keyboard
where a homogeneous state was defined as one in which minorities made up less than five per cent of the population.[2] Sujit Choudhry therefore argues that, "[t]he age of the ethnoculturally homogeneous state, if ever there was one, is over".[3] COMPAQ Presario CQ45-214TU laptop keyboard
Pakistan as a state arose out of the Pakistan Movement that demanded a separate state for Indian Muslims. This was based on the Two Nation Theory, SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
the idea that Hindus and Muslims in British India represented not only different religious communities but also distinct nations and hence in the event of Indian independenceshould be diveded into two different nation-states. The Two Nation Theory was outlined by Muhammad Ali Jinnah (known in Pakistan as Quaid-e-Azm meaning "the great leader") as follows: HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, SONY VAIO VGN NR385E/T Laptop Keyboard
and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. HP 634139-001 Laptop Keyboard
They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state."[6][7]
This idea was ultimately successful in reaching its goal for a separate Indian-Muslim state and culminated in the creation of Pakistan in 1947 in what is known as the Partition of India. ACER Aspire 7552G Laptop Keyboard
Urdu was then promoted as the national language of all South Asian Muslims. However, Pakistan is a very diverse and multiethnic state, as the largest language group the Punjabis do not make up an absolute majority at only 45% of the population and speakers of the national language as the mother tongue only making up 8%. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
In this diverse context many nationalist movements that discard the Two Nation Theory have emerged. These movements are based upon the idea that Pakistan is not only a linguistically diverse state but also a multinational one, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
and therefore each ethnolinguistic group of Pakistan would be a distinct nationality. [8] Common grievances of these movements include the idea that Pakistan is dominated by Punjabis dominate Pakistan politically and economically with other groups feeling marginalised, HP Pavilion dv6-2155ee laptop keyboard
and that the use of Urdu as the sole national language is a form of cultural colonisation that ignores the rich cultural heritage of Pakistan’s diverse peoples.
The most successful of these movements is that of Bengali nationalism, whose proponents asserted that the fact that Urdu was the only language of Pakistan would give an unfair advantage to Mohajirs ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
(who speak Urdu as their mother tongue) and Punjabis (whose mother tongue Punjabi is quite similar to Urdu, and they were indeed already educated in Urdu under British rule). Bengalis thus feared they would be marginalised under this language policy despite their demographic strength as the largest ethnic group of Pakistan. Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
All these grievances culminated in the secession of East Bengal (which before secession was integrated in the administrative unit of East Pakistan) from Pakistan and the creation of the Bengali-speaking nation-state of Bangladesh. TOSHIBA Satellite L650D-13U laptop keyboard
Other nationalist movements include those of the Sindhis, Pashtuns, Baloch, Mohajirs and Kashmiris. The members of these movements assert that Pakistan is a multinational state as Islam cannot be considered the sole basis for nationhood. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
Their demands range from increased autonomy or the transformation of Pakistan into a federation, the recognition of language rights of non-Urdu-speaking populations, or outright secession from Pakistan. DELL Inspiron 1720 laptop keyboard
Despite the fact that Punjabis are widely seen as the dominant ethnic group in Pakistan in economic and political spheres, HP G61-415SA laptop keyboard
there are is also a small Punjabi language movement that asserts that the Punjabi language has been unfairly subordinated to Urdu and supports the reestablishment of cultural and economic links with Eastern Punjab in India. [9] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 laptop keyboard
Austria-Hungary, which succeeded the Austrian Empire, is a historical instance of a multinational state. The centrifugal forces within it, together with the loss of the First World War, led to its breaking up in 1918, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
when its successor states included the First Austrian Republic, the Kingdom of Hungary,Czechoslovakia, and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Parts of Austria-Hungary were also incorporated into Poland, Ukraine, the Kingdom of Romania and theKingdom of Italy. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
The Empire's principal languages were German, Hungarian, Polish, Czech and Croatian, but there were many more besides, including Ukrainian, Romanian, Slovak, Serbian, Slovene, Rusyn, Italian, and Yiddish.[10] HP Mini 110-1033CA laptop keyboard
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a union of Soviet republics (of which there were 15 after 1956) with the capital in Moscow. It was founded in December 1922 when the Russian SFSR, which formed during theRussian Revolution of 1917 and emerged victorious in the ensuing Russian Civil War, unified with theTranscaucasian, HP Pavilion dv6-3142se laptop keyboard
Ukrainian and Belorussian SSRs. Addressing the Extraordinary Eighth Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union on 25 November 1936, Stalin stated that "within the Soviet Union there are about sixty nations, national groups and nationalities. The Soviet state is a multi-national state."[11] LENOVO V-109820AS1-US laptop keyboard
In the late 1980s, some constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards or even declarations of sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR Constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede.[12] SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of that republic's residents vote for secession on a referendum.[13] Many held free elections, producing legislatures that soon passed legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws".SONY VAIO VGN-FS790B laptop keyboard
In 1989, the Russian SFSR, which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected the chairman of the Congress. HP Pavilion dv5-1212em laptop keyboard
On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR's laws. The period of legal uncertainty continued throughout 1991 as constituent republics slowly became de facto independent. SONY Vaio VGN-FW390 Laptop Keyboard
A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991, with the majority of the population voting for preservation of the Union in nine out of 15 republics. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost, and, HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard
in the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty was designed and agreed upon by eight republics which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser federation. The signing of the treaty, however, HP Pavilion dv6-3142tx Laptop Keyboard
was interrupted by the August Coup—an attemptedcoup d'état against Gorbachev by hardline Communist Party members of the government and the KGB, who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, ASUS X53 Laptop Keyboard
Yeltsin—who had publicly opposed it—came out as a hero while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared restoration of full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example), HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
while the other twelve republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union.
On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed the Belavezha Accords which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
While doubts remained over the authority of the Belavezha Accords to dissolve the Union, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia, including those republics that had signed the Belavezha Accords, HP Pavilion DV7-3162nr Laptop Keyboard
signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the dismemberment and consequential extinction of the USSR and restated the establishment of the CIS. The summit of Alma-Ata also agreed on several other practical measures consequential to the extinction of the Union. SONY VAIO VGN-CR31E Laptop Keyboard
On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev yielded to the inevitable and resigned as the president of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that until then were vested in the presidency over to Boris Yeltsin, president of Russia. HP Mini 110-3118cl Laptop Keyboard
The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, recognized the bankruptcy and collapse of the Soviet Union and dissolved itself. This is generally recognized as the official, HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard
final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state. Many organizations such as theSoviet Army and police forces continued to remain in place in the early months of 1992 but were slowly phased out and either withdrawn from or were absorbed by the newly independent states. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
The Russian Federation has over a hundred and sixty different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples. The largest population is the ethnic Russians, who are Slavswith Orthodox traditions, while the Tatars and Bashkirs have a Muslim culture. Russia also has Buddhist populations, such as the nomadic Buryats and Kalmyks, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
and the Shamanistic peoples of Siberia and the Extreme North, as well as the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Russian North West and the Volga Region and the peoples of the Northern Caucasus, all contributing to the extreme cultural and national diversity of the country.[14] DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
Out of a total of more than a hundred languages which are spoken in the Russian Federation, the country has twenty-seven official languages. More than 3% of the whole population of the Federation speak Tatar.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
In parts of the Federal state conflicts of nationality and other factors have led to secessionism, most notably in Chechnya, where the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and the Caucasus Emirate have sought independence from Russia.[16] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which before 3 October 1929 was known as theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia (to which the Kingdom of Montenegro was annexed on 13 November 1918, and the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris gave international recognition to the union on 13 July 1922).[17] ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941, and because of the events that followed, was officially abolished in 1943 and 1945.
The second country with this name was the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisansresistance movement during World War II. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
It was renamed to the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946, when a communist government was established. In 1963, it was renamed again to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, as Istria and Rijeka were added to the new Yugoslavia after the end of World War II. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
The constituent six Socialist Republics and two Socialist Autonomous Provinces that made up the country were: SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Slovenia and SR Serbia (including the autonomous provinces of SAP Vojvodina and SAP Kosovo which after 1974 were largely equal to the other members of the federation[18][19]). DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
Starting in 1991, the SFRY disintegrated in the Yugoslav Wars which followed the secession of most of the country's constituent entities. The next Yugoslavia, known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, existed until 2003, when it was renamed Serbia and Montenegro, but in 2006 this state finally separated into Serbiaand Montenegro. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard
Definition of ethnicity or nationality in Spain is fraught politically. The term "Spanish people" (pueblo español) is defined in the 1978 constitution as the political sovereign, i.e. the citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
The same constitution in its preamble speaks of "peoples and nationalities of Spain" (pueblos y nacionalidades de España) and their respective cultures, traditions, languages and institutions.
After the transition from Francoist Spain to the Kingdom of Spain in the 1970s, regionalism proliferated to become a major part of national politics. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51 1833 Laptop Keyboard
The CIA Factbook (2011) gives a racial description of "composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types" under "ethnic groups" instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition. This reflects the formation of the modern Kingdom of Spain by the accretion of several independent Iberian realms, i.e. Asturias, León, Galicia, DELL NSK-DCM01 Laptop Keyboard
Castile, Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia, Majorca, Valencia, Granada. The individual nationalities or peoples of these lands are the Asturians, Leonese,Galicians, Basques, Cantabrians, Castilians, Aragonese, Catalans, and Andalusians, individuals from which groups may or may not consider them "nations" apart depending on political outlook. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a 'nation state',[22][23] others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a 'multinational state',[24][25][26] ASUS F6VE Laptop Keyboard
and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales).[27]
The Kingdom of Great Britain was created by the political union of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland on 1 May 1707.[28] HP G72-250US Laptop Keyboard
This event was the result of the Treaty of Union that was agreed on 22 July 1706, and then ratified by both the Parliament of England and Parliament of Scotland each passing an Act of Union in 1707.[29] HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
The kingdoms of England and Scotland, together with the kingdom of Ireland, had already been in a personal union as a result of the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI, King of Scots inherited the Kingdoms of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London. However, until 1707, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
all three remained separate political entities and retained their separate political institutions.[30][31] At the outset of this state, many of its inhabitants retained the sensation of having English, Scottish, Welsh, or indeed Cornish nationality. It is also notable that languages other than English were spoken, principally Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Welsh, Cornish, and Norn. HP Pavilion DV8125NR Laptop Keyboard
Almost a century later the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the passing of the Act of Union 1800.[32] In this way, the United Kingdom became the union of the kingdoms ofEngland, Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2516 Laptop Keyboard
Ireland and Scotland.[30][31] Disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921,[33] with Dominion status for the Irish Free State in 1922 while Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.[34] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
As a result, in 1927, the formal title of the UK was changed to its current form, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[35] SONY VAIO PCG-FR215E laptop keyboard
The end of the 20th century saw major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales following pre-legislative referendums.[36] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
The Scottish National Party, a major political force and current party of government in Scotland, is committed to the goal of an independent Scotland within theEuropean Union, but this is opposed by the leadership of the next three largest parties in the Scottish Parliament. Plaid Cymru has a similar ambition for Wales.[37] HP Pavilion dv6-2131ee laptop keyboard
The present Republic of South Africa is the successor state of the Union of South Africa, which was formed from four British colonies in 1910. The Republic has eleven official languages (Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, SONY VAIO VGN-N31M/W laptop keyboard
Xhosa, Zulu, English and Afrikaans) and affords official recognition to several other languages spoken by minority nations. Many speakers of a language may in fact be from a different nationality, for example, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
some members of both the Ndebele and the Twsana nations do speak Zulu; And groups such as the Thembu and Hlubi speak Xhosa as their home language. Further examples include theAfrikaners and Coloured communities -- both speak Afrikaans, large sections of the Indian community speak English as their home language, as do members of the British ethnic group. HP G61-420CA laptop keyboard
Just as in all parts of Africa (except for settler ethnic groups such as Dutch, English, Arab, Indian and Chinese ethnicities), the nations in South Africa correspond to specific regions in South Africa. Like other large cities in Africa, HP Pavilion DV7-3162nr laptop keyboard
cities such as Johannesburg see a mixing of various national groups found in the republic, leading to a "melting pot" of culture. ASUS F6A laptop keyboard
The South African government continuously attempts to unify the various nationalities in South Africa and to create the feeling of a South African identity. Struggles by South African leaders such as Bantu Biko help to re-create the African identity upon which South African identity is being built. DELL Vostro PP37L laptop keyboard
Many of the nationalities found in South Africa are also found in countries bordering South Africa. There are more Sotho, Tswana and Swazi people living in South Africa than in the bordering nation states of Lesotho, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
Botswana and Swaziland respectively. In the past this has led to conflict. Lesotho still claims large swathes of South Africa and in the past attempts were made to cede portions of South African territory to Botswana and Swaziland. ACER AEZU2R00010 laptop keyboard
It was originally intended that these three states be incorporated in the Union of South Africa, plans that never came to fruition due to power struggles within the apartheid governments in Southern Africa. DELL NSK-DCM01 Laptop Keyboard
The territory of the khanate comprised the Muslim Bolgar-populated lands of Bolğar, Cükätäw, Kazan, Qaşan duchies and other regions that originally belonged to Volga Bulgaria. The Volga, Kama and Vyatka were the main rivers of the khanate, as well as the major trade ways. DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard
The majority of the population were Kazan Tatars (i.e. Muslim Bolgars that adopted the Tatar language). Their self-identity was not restricted to Tatars; many identified themselves simply as Muslims or as "the people of Kazan". Islam was the state religion. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The local feudal nobility consisted of ethnic Bolgars, but the Kazan khans' court and body guard were composed of steppe Tatars (Kipchaks, and later of Nogais) that lived in Kazan. According to the Ginghizide tradition, the local Turkic tribes were also called Tatars by the steppe nobility and, later, by the Russian elite. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Part of the higher nobility hailed from the Golden Horde. It included members of four leading noble families: Arghin, Barin, Qipchaq, and Shirin.
Peoples subject to the khan included the Chuvash, Mari, Mordva, Tatar-Mishar, Udmurt, and Bashkir. HP Pavilion DV6-1000 laptop keyboard
The Permians and some of the Komi tribes were also incorporated into the Khanate. The Mishars had arrived during the period of the Golden Hordeand gradually assimilated the resident Finnic Mordvins and Burtas. SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
Their territory was governed by former steppe Tatars. Some of the Mishar duchies were never controlled from Kazan and instead gravitated towards the Qasim Khanate or Muscovite Russia.
Most of the khanate territory was covered by forests, and only the southern part adjoined the steppe. The main population of the steppes were the nomadic Manghites, also known as Nogais, SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
who sometimes recognized the rule of the Kazan khan, but more often raided agricultural Tatars and Chuvash, as they had done in the Golden Horde period. Later, Nogais were transplanted and replaced with Kalmyks. SONY VAIO VGN-NW120J laptop keyboard
More recently, this area was settled by Tatars, Chuvash and Russians, who erected defensive walls to guard the southern border. Since the khanate was established, Tatar Cossack troops defended the khanate from the Nogais. HP Pavilion dv6-2146so laptop keyboard
Russian sources indicate that at least five languages were used in the Kazan khanate. The first and foremost was the Tatar language, including the Middle dialect of the Kazan Tatars (formerly Muslim Bolgars) and the Western dialect of the Mishars (formerly steppe Tatars who had spoken Kipchak). ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
Its written form (Old Tatar language) was the favoured language of the state. The Chuvash language was a descendant of the Bolgar language, spoken by the pagan Chuvash people. The Bolgar language also strongly influenced the Middle dialect of Tatar language. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
The other three were probably the Mari language, the Mordvin languages and the Bashkir language, likewise developed from the Bolgar and Kipchak languages.
The state was governed by the khan. HP pavilion DV7-1040et laptop keyboard
His actions were based on decisions and consultations of a cabinet council, or Diwan. The nobility comprised the ranks of bäk (beg), ämir (emir), and morza. Military estates consisted of the uğlan (ulan), bahadir,içki (ichki). SONY VAIO VGN-FS790B laptop keyboard
Muslim clergy also played a major role. They were divided into säyet (seid), şäyex (sheikh), qazí (qazi), andimams. The ulema or clergy played a judicial role, and maintained the madrassas (schools) and maktabs (libraries). HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
The majority of the population were qara xalıq (black people): a free Muslim population, who lived on state land.[1] The feudal lands were mostly settled by çura (serfs). SONY VAIO VGN-FZ18E laptop keyboard
Prisoners of war were usually sold to Turkey or Central Asia. Occasionally they were sold within the Khanate as slaves (qol) and sometimes were settled on feudal lands to become çura later. The non-Muslim population of the Khanate were required to pay the yasaq. HP Pavilion dv6-3160ez laptop keyboard
The former territories of Volga Bulgaria (Kazan Ulus or Kazan Duchy) may have regained a degree of independence within the disintegrating Golden Horde by the turn of the 15th century. The principality was self-governed and maintained a dynasty of Bolgarrulers. Whatever the status of this proto-state, the founder of the khanate was Olug Moxammat. SONY Vaio VGN-FW390 laptop keyboard
It was in 1437 or 1438 that he assumed the title of khan and usurped the throne of Kazan with some help from local nobility. It has been suggested that the transfer of power from the local Bolgar dynasty to Moxammat was finalized by his son Maxmud in 1445. TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
Throughout its history, the khanate was prone to civil turmoil and struggles for the throne. The khans were replaced 19 times in 115 years. There were a total of fifteen reigning khans, some ascending the throne multiple times. HP Pavilion dv5-1026eo laptop keyboard
The Khan was often elected from the Gengizides by vernacular nobility and even by the citizens themselves.
to provoke revolts (in 1496, 1500, and 1505), but with negligible results. SAMSUNG R20 laptop keyboard
In 1521, Kazan emerged from the dominance of Moscow, concluding a mutual aid treaty with the Astrakhan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate and the Nogay Horde. The combined forces of khan Muhamed Giray and his Crimean allies then attacked Muscovy and captured more than 150,000 slaves. DELL NSK-DCL01 Laptop Keyboard
Russian chronicles record about forty attacks of Kazan khans on the Russian territories (mainly the regions of Nizhniy Novgorod, Murom, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma, Galich) in the first half of the 16th century. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
The reinforcement of Crimea displeased the pro-Moscow elements of the Kazan Khanate, and some of these noblemen provoked a revolt in 1545. The result was the deposition of Safa Giray. A Moscow supporter, Şahğäli, occupied the throne. Following that year, Moscow organized several campaigns to impose control over Kazan, but the attempts were unsuccessful. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
Whether the khanate had its own flag is still unclear. Nevertheless, the Dutchman Carlus (Carel) Allard noted that Caesar of Tataria used two flags, and Zilant was pictured on the first.
With the help of the Nogays, Safa Giray returned to the throne. He executed 75 noblemen, and the rest of his opposition escaped to Russia. HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
In 1549 he died, and his 3-year old sonÜtämeşgäräy was recognized as khan. His regent and the de facto ruler of the khanate was his mother Söyembikä. The administration of the ulan Qoşçaq gained a degree of independence under her rule. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
At that time Safa Giray's relatives (including Devlet I Giray) were in Crimea. Their invitation to the throne of Kazan was vitiated by a large portion of vernacular nobility. Under Qoşçaq's government relations with Russia continued to worsen. A group of disgruntled noblemen at the beginning of 1551 invited a supporter of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, Şahğäli, for the second time. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
At the same time the lands to the east of the Volga River (Taw yağı) were ceded to Russia. Ütämeşgäräy, along with his mother, was sent to a Moscow prison. Şahğäli occupied the Kazan throne until February 1552. HP Mini 311-1037NR Laptop Keyboard
Anti-Moscow elements in the Kazan government exiled Şahğäli and invited the Astrakhan prince Yadegar Moxammad, along with the Nogays, to aid them.
Kazan was then put under siege. The forces of Ivan IV operated from the Russian castle of Sviyazhsk. In August 1552, the Russians defeated the Tatar inland troops, SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
burnt Archa and some castles. After two months of siege and destruction of the citadel walls on October 3, the Russians entered the city. Some defenders managed to escape but most were put to the sword. Yadegar Moxammad was imprisoned and the population was slaughtered. The Kazan Chronicle reports about 110,000 killed, SONY 9J.N0Q82.101 Laptop Keyboard
both civilians and garrison, and 60,000 - 100,000 Russians who had been kept captive in the khanate released. It is however well known that this chronicle is not completely reliable[citation needed]. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
After the fall of Kazan, territories such as Udmurtia and Bashkortostan joined Russia without a conflict. The khanate's administration was wiped out; pro-Moscow and neutral nobles kept their lands, but others were executed. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Tatars were then resettled far away from rivers, roads and Kazan. Free lands were settled by Russians and sometimes by pro-Russian Tatars. Orthodox bishops such as Germogen forcibly baptized many Tatars. TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 laptop keyboard
Until 1556, part of the population continued to resist Russian rule. The rebel governments were formed in Chalem and Mishatamaq. But as the Nogays under Ğäli Äkräm often raided the agricultural population, the coalition went to ruin. After a brutal repression against the Kazan rebels, their commanders were executed. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
By some estimates,[2] the population of the former khanate declined by several thousands during the wars. The colonial administration, known as the Kazan Palace's Office undertook the forced Russification and Christianization of the Tatars and other peoples.[3] The term Tsardom of Kazan was in use until 1708 when the Kazan Governorate was formed. SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard
According to some scholars,[citation needed] the Khanate of Kazan was briefly restored during the Time of Troubles with the help of the ethnic Russian population, but Russian forces under the leadership of Kuzma Minin suppressed the rebellion. SONY VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B laptop keyboard
Intellectual disability (ID) or general learning disability is a generalized disorder appearing before adulthood, characterized by significantly impaired cognitive functioning and deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors. Intellectual disability is also known as mental retardation (MR), although this older term is being used less frequently.[1][2] TOSHIBA 9J.N9282.W01 laptop keyboard
It was historically defined as an intelligence quotient score under 70. Once focused almost entirely oncognition, the definition now includes both a component relating to mental functioning and one relating to individuals' functional skills in their environment. TOSHIBA Satellite L650-11J laptop keyboard
As a result, a person with an unusually low IQ may not be considered intellectually disabled. Intellectual disability is subdivided into syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits associated with other medical and behavioral signs and symptoms are present, HP Pavilion dv6-2150us laptop keyboard
and non-syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits appear without other abnormalities.
The terms used for this condition are subject to a process called the euphemism treadmill. This means that whatever term is chosen for this condition, HP Pavilion DV6-1205ee laptop keyboard
it eventually becomes perceived as an insult. The terms mental retardation and mentally retarded were invented in the middle of the 20th century to replace the previous set of terms, which were deemed to have become offensive. HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
By the end of the 20th century, these terms themselves have come to be widely seen as disparaging and politically incorrect and in need of replacement.[3] The term intellectual disability is now preferred by most advocates and researchers in most English-speaking countries.[1][2] As of 2013, HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
the term "mental retardation" is still used by the World Health Organization in the ICD-10 codes, which have a section titled "Mental Retardation" (codes F70–F79). In the next revision, the ICD-11 is expected to replace the term "mental retardation" with "intellectual disability," and the DSM-5 has replaced it with "intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)."[4][5] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Because of its specificity and lack of confusion with other conditions, the term "mental retardation" is still sometimes used in professional medical settings around the world, such as formal scientific research and health insurance paperwork.[6] HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
Children with intellectual disability learn more slowly than a typical child. Children may take longer to learn language, develop social skills, and take care of their personal needs, such as dressing or eating. Learning will take them longer, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
require more repetition, and skills may need to be adapted to their learning level. Nevertheless, virtually every child is able to learn, develop and become a participating member of the community. HP Mini 311-1000NR laptop keyboard
In early childhood, mild intellectual disability (IQ 50–69) may not be obvious, and may not be identified until children begin school.[7] Even when poor academic performance is recognized, it may take expert assessment to distinguish mild intellectual disability from learning disability or emotional/behavioral disorders. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
People with mild intellectual disability are capable of learning reading and mathematics skills to approximately the level of a typical child aged nine to twelve.[7] They can learn self-care and practical skills, such as cooking or using the local mass transit system.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F laptop keyboard
As individuals with intellectual disability reach adulthood, many learn to live independently and maintain gainful employment.
Moderate intellectual disability (IQ 35–49) is nearly always apparent within the first years of life. Speech delays are particularly common signs of moderate MR.[7] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5282 laptop keyboard
People with moderate intellectual disability need considerable supports in school, at home, and in the community in order to participate fully. While their academic potential is limited, they can learn simple health and safety skills and to participate in simple activities.[7] As adults they may live with their parents, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
in a supportive group home, or even semi-independently with significant supportive services to help them, for example, manage their finances. As adults, they may work in a sheltered workshop.[7] HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
A person with severe or profound intellectual disability will need more intensive support and supervision his or her entire life.[7] They may learn someactivities of daily living. Some will require full-time care by an attendant.[7] HP AENM7U00210 Laptop Keyboard
The first English-language IQ test, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, was adapted from a test battery designed for school placement by Alfred Binet in France. Lewis Terman adapted Binet's test and promoted it as a test measuring "general intelligence." ACER Aspire 5235 Laptop Keyboard
Terman's test was the first widely used mental test to report scores in "intelligence quotient" form ("mental age" divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100). Current tests are scored in "deviation IQ" form, with a performance level by a test-taker two standard deviations below the median score for the test-taker's age group defined as IQ 70. ACER Aspire 2920Z Laptop Keyboard
Until the most recent revision of diagnostic standards, an IQ of 70 or below was a primary factor for intellectual disability diagnosis, and IQ scores were used to categorize degrees of intellectual disability. SONY 147977821 Laptop Keyboard
Since current diagnosis of intellectual disability is not based on IQ scores alone, but must also take into consideration a person's adaptive functioning, the diagnosis is not made rigidly. It encompasses intellectual scores, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
adaptive functioning scores from an adaptive behavior rating scale based on descriptions of known abilities provided by someone familiar with the person, and also the observations of the assessment examiner who is able to find out directly from the person what he or she can understand, SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D laptop keyboard
communicate, and such like. IQ assessment must be based on a current test. This enables diagnosis to avoid the pitfall of the Flynn Effect, which is a consequence of changes in population IQ test performance changing IQ test norms over time. Packard Bell Easynote LM94 laptop keyboard
By most definitions intellectual disability is more accurately considered a disability rather than a disease. Intellectual disability can be distinguished in many ways from mental illness, such as schizophrenia or depression. Currently, there is no "cure" for an established disability, though with appropriate support and teaching, most individuals can learn to do many things. Compaq Presario CQ71-240SG laptop keyboard
There are thousands of agencies around the world that provide assistance for people with developmental disabilities. They include state-run, for-profit, and non-profit, privately run agencies. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-130EB laptop keyboard
Within one agency there could be departments that include fully staffed residential homes, day rehabilitation programs that approximate schools, workshops wherein people with disabilities can obtain jobs, SONY Vaio VGN-AW190 laptop keyboard
programs that assist people with developmental disabilities in obtaining jobs in the community, programs that provide support for people with developmental disabilities who have their own apartments, HP G61-420CA laptop keyboard
programs that assist them with raising their children, and many more. There are also many agencies and programs for parents of children with developmental disabilities.
Beyond that there are specific programs that people with developmental disabilities can take part in wherein they learn basic life skills. HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
These "goals" may take a much longer amount of time for them to accomplish, but the ultimate goal is independence. This may be anything from independence in tooth brushing to an independent residence. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
People with developmental disabilities learn throughout their lives and can obtain many new skills even late in life with the help of their families, caregivers, clinicians and the people who coordinate the efforts of all of these people. HP Pavilion dv6-2140ed laptop keyboard
Although there is no specific medication for intellectual disability, many people with developmental disabilities have further medical complications and may be prescribed several medications. ACER TravelMate 6293 laptop keyboard
For example autistic children with developmental delay may be prescribed antipsychotics or mood stabilizers to help with their behavior. Use of psychotropic medications such as benzodiazepines in people with intellectual disability requires monitoring and vigilance as side effects occur commonly and are often misdiagnosed as behavioural and psychiatric problems.[16] ACER Aspire 2920Z-2A2G16Mi laptop keyboard
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Ivan IV Vasilyevich (Russian: Ива́н Васи́льевич; 25 August 1530 – 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584),[1] Toshiba Satellite A210-1BC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
commonly known asIvan the Terrible (Russian: Ива́н Гро́зный (help•info), Ivan Grozny), was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All the Russias from 1547 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan,Astrakhan, HP G62-b15EL Laptop Keyboard
and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres, approximately 4,046,856 km2 (1,562,500 sq mi).[2] Ivan managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
Historic sources present disparate accounts of Ivan's complex personality: he was described as intelligent and devout, yet given to rages and prone to episodic outbreaks of mental illness. In one such outburst he killed his groomed and chosen heir Ivan Ivanovich. This left the Tsardom to be passed to Ivan's younger son, the weak and intellectually disabled[3] HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev Laptop Keyboard
Feodor Ivanovich. Ivan's legacy is complex: he was an able diplomat, a patron of arts and trade, founder of Russia's first Print Yard, a leader highly popular among the common people of Russia, but he is also remembered for hisparanoia and arguably harsh treatment of the nobility. HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny in Ivan's nickname, but the modern English usage of terrible, with a pejorative connotation of bad or evil, does not precisely represent the intended meaning. HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
The meaning of grozny is closer to the original usage of terrible—inspiring fear or terror, dangerous (as inOld English in one's danger), formidable or threatening, tough, strict, authoritative. V. HP Mini 110-3519la Laptop Keyboard
Dal defines groznyspecifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "courageous, magnificent, magisterial, and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience".[4] Other translations were also suggested by modern scholars.[5][6][7] ASUS F80Q Laptop Keyboard
Ivan was the son of Vasili III and his second wife, Elena Glinskaya. When Ivan was three years old, his father died from a boil and inflammation on his leg which developed into blood poisoning. Ivan was proclaimed the Grand Prince of Moscowat his father's request. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
At first, his mother Elena Glinskaya acted as regent, but she died of what many believe to be assassination by poison[8][9] when Ivan was only eight years old. According to his own letters, Ivan, along with his younger brother Yuri, often felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the Shuisky and Belsky families. HP G62-b20SS Laptop Keyboard
Ivan was crowned with Monomakh's Cap at the Cathedral of the Dormition at age 16 on 16 January 1547. He was the first person to be crowned as "Tsar of All the Russias", hence claiming the ancestry of Kievan Rus. ASUS A3000E Laptop Keyboard
Prior to that, rulers of Muscovy were crowned as Grand Princes, although Ivan III the Great, his grandfather, styled himself "tsar" in his correspondence.
By being crowned Tsar, Ivan was sending a message to the world and to Russia: he was now the one and only supreme ruler of the country, and his will was not to be questioned. ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard
"The new title symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by former Byzantine Emperor and the Tatar Khan, both known in Russian sources as Tsar. The political effect was to elevate Ivan's position."[10] SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard
The new title not only secured the throne, but it also granted Ivan a new dimension of power, one intimately tied to religion. He was now a "divine" leader appointed to enact God's will, "church texts described Old Testament kings as 'Tsars' and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar."[11] FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 Laptop Keyboard
The newly appointed title was then passed on from generation to generation, "succeeding Muscovite rulers...benefited from the divine nature of the power of the Russian monarch...crystallized during Ivan's reign."[12] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Despite calamities triggered by the Great Fire of 1547, the early part of Ivan's reign was one of peaceful reforms and modernization. Ivan revised the law code, creating the Sudebnik of 1550, founded a standing army (the streltsy),[13] SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
established the Zemsky Sobor (the first Russian parliament of the feudal Estates type), the council of the nobles (known as the Chosen Council), and confirmed the position of the Church with the Council of the Hundred Chapters, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
which unified the rituals and ecclesiastical regulations of the whole country. He introduced local self-government to rural regions, mainly in the northeast of Russia, populated by the state peasantry. DELL Inspiron E1405 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
By Ivan's order in 1553 the Moscow Print Yard was established and the first printing press was introduced to Russia. The 1550s and 1560s saw the printing of several religious books in Russian. The new technology provoked discontent with traditional scribes, DELL DFS541305MH0T Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
which led to the Print Yard being burned in an arson attack and the first Russian printers Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets being forced to flee from Moscow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Nevertheless, printing of books resumed from 1568 onwards, with Andronik Timofeevich Nevezha and his son Ivan now heading the Print Yard. HP G62-341NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Ivan had St. Basil's Cathedral constructed in Moscow to commemorate the seizure of Kazan. Legend has it that he was so impressed with the structure that he had the architect, Postnik Yakovlev, blinded so that he could never design anything as beautiful again. HP Pavilion dv6648el Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In reality, Postnik Yakovlev went on to design more churches for Ivan and Kazan's Kremlin walls in the early 1560s, as well as the chapel over St. Basil's grave that was added to St. Basil's Cathedral in 1588, several years after Ivan's death. Toshiba Satellite P100-386 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Although more than one architect was associated with this name and constructions, it is believed that the principal architect is one and the same person.[14][15][16] HP Pavilion dv7-6151ed Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other events of this period include the introduction of the first laws restricting the mobility of the peasants, which would eventually lead to serfdom.
Conditions under Oprichnina were worsened by the 1570 epidemics of plague that killed 10,000 people in Novgorod. In Moscow it killed 600–1000 daily.[23] HP G42-380LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
During the grim conditions of the epidemics, famine and ongoing Livonian war, Ivan grew suspicious that noblemen of the wealthy city of Novgorod were planning to defect, placing the city itself into the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. HP G60-230us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In 1570 Ivan ordered the Oprichniki to raid the city. The Oprichniki burned and pillaged Novgorod and the surrounding villages, and the city was never to regain its former prominence.[24]
Casualty figures vary greatly in different sources. The First Pskov Chronicle estimates the number of victims at 60,000.[24][25][26][26] HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Yet the official death toll named 1,500 of Novgorod's big people (nobility) and mentioned only about the same number of smaller people. Many modern researchers estimate the number of victims to range from 2000–3000 (after the famine and epidemics of 1560s the population of Novgorod most likely did not exceed 10,000–20,000).[27] SONY Vaio VPC-EB1E0E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Many survivors were deported elsewhere.
Oprichnina did not live long after the sack of Novgorod. During the 1571–1572 Russo-Crimean war, oprichniks failed to prove themselves worthy against a regular army. In 1572, Ivan abolished the Oprichnina and disbanded his oprichniks. Compaq Presario CQ70-220EO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In 1547 Hans Schlitte, the agent of Ivan, recruited craftsmen in Germany for work in Russia. However all these craftsmen were arrested in Lübeck at the request of Poland and Livonia. The German merchant companies ignored the new port built by Ivan on the river Narva in 1550 and continued to deliver goods in the Baltic ports owned by Livonia. Russia remained isolated from sea trade. HP Pavilion dv7-3060sb Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Ivan established very close ties with England. Russo-English relations can be traced to 1553, when Richard Chancellor sailed to the White Sea and continued overland to Moscow. Upon his return to England in 1555, the Muscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby, and several London merchants. ACER Aspire 7720 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Ivan opened up the White Sea and the port ofArkhangelsk to the Company and granted the Company privilege of trading throughout his reign without paying the standard customs fees.[28] Muscovy Company retained the monopoly in Russo-English trade until 1698. SONY UDQF2PH52CF0 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
With the use of English merchants, Ivan engaged in a long correspondence with Queen Elizabeth. While the queen focused on commerce, Ivan was more interested in a military alliance. During his troubled relations with the boyars, the tsar even asked her for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised.
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In response to a letter of Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria asking the Tsar for financial assistance for the Monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai, which had suffered from the Turks, Ivan IV sent in 1558 a delegation to Egypt led by archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. Toshiba Satellite A215-S5802 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
From then on the embassy was headed by Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov. Poznyakov's delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo and Sinai, brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by the Tsar and left an interesting account of its 2.5 years of travels.[29] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
While Ivan IV was a minor, armies of the Kazan Khanate repeatedly raided the northeast of Russia,[30] In the 1530s the Crimean khan formed an offensive alliance with Safa Giray of Kazan, his relative. When Safa Giray invaded Muscovy in December 1540, the Russians used Qasim Tatars to contain him. After his advance was stalled near Murom, Safa Giray was forced to withdraw to his own borders. HP Pavilion dv6-2020ev laptop keyboard
These reverses undermined Safa Giray's authority in Kazan. A pro-Russian party, represented by Shahgali, gained enough popular support to make several attempts to take over the Kazan throne. In 1545 Ivan IV mounted an expedition to the Volga River to show his support for pro-Russian factions. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215B laptop keyboard
In 1551 the tsar sent his envoy to the Nogai Horde and they promised to maintain neutrality during the impending war. The Ar begs and Udmurts submitted to Russian authority as well. In 1551 the wooden fort of Sviyazhsk was transported down the Volga from Uglich all the way to Kazan. It was used as the Russian place d'armes during the decisive campaign of 1552. Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
On 16 June 1552 Ivan IV led a 150,000-strong Russian army towards Kazan. The last siege of the Tatar capital was commenced on 30 August. Under the supervision of Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky, the Russians used ram weapons, a battery-tower,mines, and 150 cannons. The Russians also had the advantage of efficient military engineers. HP Mini 110-3519la laptop keyboard
The city's water supply was blocked and the walls were breached. Kazan finally fell on 2 October, its fortifications were razed, and much of the population massacred. About 60,000 – 100,000 Russian prisoners and slaves were released. The Tsar celebrated his victory over Kazan by building several churches with oriental features, most famously Saint Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow. HP Pavilion DV6t-4000 laptop keyboard
Ivan IV before the seizure of Kazan encouraged his army by the examples of Georgian Queen Tamar's battles[31] by describing her as: "The most wise Queen of Iberia, endowed with the intelligence and courage of a man".[32] ASUS A3000E laptop keyboard
The fall of Kazan had as its primary effect the outright annexation of the Middle Volga. The Bashkirs accepted Ivan IV's authority two years later. In 1556 Ivan annexed the Astrakhan Khanate and destroyed the largest slave market on the river Volga. ASUS A6Jc laptop keyboard
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These conquests complicated the migration of the aggressive nomadic hordes from Asia to Europe through Volga. As a result of the Kazan campaigns, Muscovy was transformed into the multinational and multi-faith state of Russia. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
In 1556, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible, who had a new fortress built on a steep hill overlooking the Volga. In 1568 the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, who was the real power in the administration of the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim, initiated the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival. FUJITSU Lifebook S2110 laptop keyboard
The results presaged the many disasters to come. A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal was detailed in Constantinople and in the summer of 1569 a large force under Kasim Paşa of 1,500 Janissaries, 2,000 Spakhs, and few thousand Azaps, and Akıncıs, were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. SONY Vaio PCG-K33F laptop keyboard
Early in 1570, the ambassadors of Ivan IV of Russia concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar.
Having rejected peace proposals from his enemies, Ivan IV found himself in a difficult position by 1579. The displaced refugees fleeing the war compounded the effects of the simultaneous drought, and exacerbated war engendered epidemics, causing much loss of life. SONY VAIO VGN-NW350F laptop keyboard
Altogether the prolonged war had nearly destroyed the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while TheGrand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland and acquired an energetic leader, HP 580030-001 Laptop Keyboard
Stefan Batory, who was supported by Russia's southern enemy, the Ottoman Empire (1576). Ivan's realm was now being squeezed by two of the great powers of the time. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
After negotiations with Ivan failed, Batory launched a series of offensives against Muscovy in the campaign seasons of 1579–1581, trying to cut The Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovite territories. During his first offensive in 1579, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
he retookPolotsk with 22,000 men. During the second, in 1580, he took Velikie Luki with a 29,000-strong force. Finally, he began theSiege of Pskov in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army. Narva in Estonia was reconquered by Sweden in 1581. HP 489126-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Unlike Sweden and Poland, Denmark under Frederick II had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy. He came to an agreement with John III of Sweden, in 1580, transferring the Danish titles of Livonia to him. DELL Studio 1458 laptop keyboard
Muscovy recognized Polish-Lithuanian control of Livonia only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland, brother of Fredrick II and former ally of Ivan, died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Saaremaa, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
In late years of Ivan's reign southern borders of Muscovy were disturbed by Crimean Tatars. Khan Devlet I Giray of Crimea repeatedly raided the Moscow region. In 1571, the 40,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army launched a large-scale raid. SONY VGN-FE11S laptop keyboard
Due to ongoing Livonian war, Moscow's garrison was as small as 6,000, and could not even delay the Tatar approach. Unresisted, Devlet devastated unprotected towns and villages around Moscow and set Moscow on fire. Historians estimate the number of casualties of the fire from 10,000 to as many 80,000 people. SONY 148024421 laptop keyboard
To buy peace from Devlet Giray, Ivan was forced to relinquish his rights on Astrakhan in favor of Crimean Khanate (although this proposed transfer was only a diplomatic maneuver and was never actually complete). This defeat angered Ivan. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Upon his orders, between 1571 and 1572 preparations were made. In addition toZasechnaya cherta, innovative fortifications were set beyond the river Oka that defined the border.
Next year Devlet launched another raid on Moscow, now with 120,000-strong[33] HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
horde, equipped with cannons and reinforced by Turkish janissaries. On 26 July 1572 the horde crossed the Oka River near Serpukhov, destroyed the Russian vanguard of 200 noblemen and advanced towards Moscow. GATEWAY MX8711 laptop keyboard
The Russian army, led by Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, was half the size, estimated at between 60,000–70,000 men, yet it was an experienced streltsi army, equipped with modern firearms and gulyay-gorods. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
On 30 July the armies clashed near the Lopasnya River in what will be known as the Battle of Molodi, that continued for more than a week. The outcome was decisive Russian victory. The Crimean horde was defeated so thoroughly that both the Ottoman Sultan and theCrimean khan, his vassal, had to give up their ambitious plans of northward expansion into Russia. HP Pavilion dv4-1211tu laptop keyboard
During Ivan's reign, Russia started a large-scale exploration and colonization of Siberia. In 1555, shortly after the conquest of Kazan, Siberian khan Yadegar and Nogai khan Ismail pledged their allegiance to Ivan, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51e 1844 laptop keyboard
in hope that he would help them against their opponents. However, Yadegar failed to gather the full sum of tribute he proposed to the tsar, so Ivan did nothing to save his inefficient vassal. in 1563 Yadegar was overthrown and killed by khan Kuchum, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
who denied any tribute to Moscow.
In 1558 Ivan gave the Stroganov merchant family patent for colonizing "the abundant region along the Kama River", HP G72-b66US laptop keyboard
and in 1574 lands over the Ural Mountainsalong the rivers Tura and Tobol. They also received permission to build forts along the Ob and Irtysh rivers. Around 1577, the Stroganovs hired the Cossack leader Yermak Timofeyevich to protect their lands from attacks of the Siberian Khan Kuchum. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
In 1580 Yermak started his conquest of Siberia. With some 540 Cossacks he started to penetrate territories that were tributary to Kuchum. Yermak pressured and persuaded the various family-based tribes to change their loyalties and become tributaries of Russia. Some agreed voluntarily, under better terms than with Kuchum, Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
other were forced. He also established distant forts in the newly conquered lands. The campaign was successful, and cossacks managed to defeat the Siberian army in the Battle of Chuvash Cape, but Yermak was still in need for reinforcements. Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2522 laptop keyboard
He sent an envoy to Ivan the Terrible, with a message that proclaimed Yermak-conquered Siberia a part of Russia, to the dismay of the Stroganovs, who planned to keep Siberia for themselves. Ivan agreed to reinforce the cossacks with his streltsi. SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
Yermak's conquest expanded Ivan's empire to the east and allowed him to style himself "Tsar of Siberia" in the tsar's very last years.
The Moscow Print Yard (Russian: Московский Печатный двор) was the first publishing house in Russia.[1] It was established in Kitai-gorod at the behest of Ivan the Terrible in 1553. The historic headquarters of the Print Yard now house the Russian State University for the Humanities. DELL E141395 Laptop Keyboard
Moscow Print Yard was first mentioned in Aufzeichnungen über den Moskauer Staat by Heinrich von Staden. It is known to have published Lenten Triodion, Triodion in Pictures, Gospel, Psalter, and other books, which didn't have any imprints (hence, another bookish name of the Print Yard - Anonymous Printing House). HP Pavilion DV3506la Laptop Keyboard
On March 1 of 1564, Ivan Fyodorov and Pyotr Timofeyev (Mstislavets) published the very first dated book called Apostle(Апостол) at the Moscow Print Yard. In 1565, the printing house published Chasovnik (Часовник, orBook of hours) and then Psalter (1568). ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
In 1612, Moscow Print Yard was destroyed by fire, but soon it would be rebuilt. In 1620, they erected a two-story stone chamber for the Print Yard, moving seven typesetters and eighty employees from the Kremlin to the new premises. APPLE ibook g4 14 inch Laptop Keyboard
In 1625, they built several underground storage rooms and tunnels leading to the Kremlin. The fire of 1634 destroyed all of the buildings belonging to the Print Yard. In 1642–1643, they built several new stone chambers for the publishing house under the supervision of an apprentice from Stoneworks Prikaz named T.Shaturin. HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard
In 1644, an apprentice I.Neverov and a foreigner named Christopher erected Gothic stone gates with towers, which divided the chambers of the Print Yard in two. These buildings housed the Bookprinting Prikaz and Proofreading Chamber. In 1679, they dismantled the so-called old "Big Chamber" building in the Print Yard, SONY 148096222 Laptop Keyboard
which was adjacent to the wall of Kitai-gorod. Stonemasons S.Dmitriyev and I.Artemyev supervised the erection of a new building over the old foundation, which would later be painted by a court icon painter L.Ivanov and house the Proofreading Chamber and a library. HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard
In 1653, Patriarch Nikon (who supervised the work of the Print Yard) sent a scientific expedition to the East. Its leader A.Sukhanov brought five hundred Greek manuscripts from Mount Athos to Moscow. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E Laptop Keyboard
These books laid the foundation for the library of the Moscow Print Yard. In 1681, they opened a Greek school on the premises of the printing house. By the end of the 17th century, the staff of the Print Yard had already numbered 165 people. HP 517865-031 Laptop Keyboard
It was placed under the authority of the Big Palace Prikaz (Приказ Большого дворца) and published the so-called menology books (Анфологион, or Anfologion, 1660), polemical works, translations, textbooks (Букварь, or Primer by Vasily Burtsov-Protopopov, 1634; Грамматика, or Grammar by Meletiy Smotritsky, HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard
1648;Арифметика, or Arithmetics by Leonty Magnitsky, 1703 etc.). All in all, the Moscow Print Yard published 30 books (1000 copies each) between the late 16th – early 17th centuries. Proofreaders Andronik Timofeyev Nevezha and Ivan Andronikov Nevezha influenced the formation of a certain style of Moscow Cyrillic editions of the 17th century. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
Karion Istomin is known to have worked at the Print Yard first as a proofreader (since 1682) and then its inspector (1698-1701).
In 1703–1711, the Moscow Print Yard published the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti. In 1710, proofreader Fyodor Polikarpov-Orlov(future director of the publishing house in 1726-1731) DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard
presented a copy of the Alphabet (Азбука) with the pictures of ancient and contemporary Slavonic letters to Peter the Great. In 1564–1711, the Moscow Print Yard published approximately 700 kinds of books (some of them, such as the Alphabet, reached 10,000 copies in 1657-1677). SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard
In 1721, the Print Yard was transferred under the authority of Most Holy Synod, its publishing house being transformed into Synodal. In the middle of the 18th century, they constructed thebaroque-style side housing together with the printing and library premises, COMPAQ Presario CQ40-145TU Laptop Keyboard
which would close the perimeter of the yard (architectsIvan Fyodorovich Michurin and Dmitry Ukhtomsky). In late 18th – early 19th century, the Print Yard building on Nikolskaya Street were dismantled and replaced with a monumental edifice of the Synodal Publishing House (1811-1815, DELL Inspiron 630m Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
architect Ivan Mironovsky). In the 19th century, the buildings of the publishing house were perceived as a single architectural ensemble with the towers and walls of Kitai-gorod, with the add-ons and alterations by future generation architects (Mikhail Chichagov, Nikolai Artleben, S.Slutsky and others). TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5244 laptop keyboard
The state monopoly on publishing continued until 1783 when some private publishing was permitted with great reluctance, although the state continued to exercise complete control through censorship. Some reforms occurred in 1861, but it was not until 1905 that greater freedom of the press was granted. HP Mini 210-2090nr laptop keyboard
A multinational state is a sovereign state which is viewed as comprising two or more nations. Such a state contrasts with a nation-state where a single nation comprises the bulk of the population. The United Kingdom, TOSHIBA Tecra M10-S3454 laptop keyboard
the Russian Federation, India, South Africa and Canada are viewed as present-day examples of multinational states, while Austria-Hungary, USSR and Yugoslavia are examples of historical multinational states which have since split into a number of sovereign states. HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
Depending on the definitions of such terms as "nation" a multinational state may or may not be multicultural and / or multilingual.
Many attempts have been made to define what a multinational state is. One complicating factor is that it is possible for many of the people of what can be considered a 'nation' to consider they have two different nationalities simultaneously. As Ilan Peleg has noted, HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
One can be a Scot and a Brit in the United Kingdom, a Jew and an American in the United States, an Igbo and a Nigerian in Nigeria... One might find it hard to be a Slovak and a Hungarian, an Arab and an Israeli, a Breton and a Frenchman.[1] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
A state may also be a society, and a multiethnic society has people belonging to more than one ethnic group, in contrast to societies which are ethnicallyhomogeneous. By some definitions of "society" and "homogeneous", HP Mini 210-1073TU laptop keyboard
virtually all contemporary national societies are multiethnic. One scholar argued in 1993 that fewer than 20 of the then 180 sovereign states could be said to be ethnically and nationally homogeneous, SONY Vaio VGN-FW280J laptop keyboard
where a homogeneous state was defined as one in which minorities made up less than five per cent of the population.[2] Sujit Choudhry therefore argues that, "[t]he age of the ethnoculturally homogeneous state, if ever there was one, is over".[3] COMPAQ Presario CQ45-214TU laptop keyboard
Pakistan as a state arose out of the Pakistan Movement that demanded a separate state for Indian Muslims. This was based on the Two Nation Theory, SONY VAIO VGN-CR120E laptop keyboard
the idea that Hindus and Muslims in British India represented not only different religious communities but also distinct nations and hence in the event of Indian independenceshould be diveded into two different nation-states. The Two Nation Theory was outlined by Muhammad Ali Jinnah (known in Pakistan as Quaid-e-Azm meaning "the great leader") as follows: HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, SONY VAIO VGN NR385E/T Laptop Keyboard
and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. HP 634139-001 Laptop Keyboard
They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state."[6][7]
This idea was ultimately successful in reaching its goal for a separate Indian-Muslim state and culminated in the creation of Pakistan in 1947 in what is known as the Partition of India. ACER Aspire 7552G Laptop Keyboard
Urdu was then promoted as the national language of all South Asian Muslims. However, Pakistan is a very diverse and multiethnic state, as the largest language group the Punjabis do not make up an absolute majority at only 45% of the population and speakers of the national language as the mother tongue only making up 8%. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
In this diverse context many nationalist movements that discard the Two Nation Theory have emerged. These movements are based upon the idea that Pakistan is not only a linguistically diverse state but also a multinational one, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
and therefore each ethnolinguistic group of Pakistan would be a distinct nationality. [8] Common grievances of these movements include the idea that Pakistan is dominated by Punjabis dominate Pakistan politically and economically with other groups feeling marginalised, HP Pavilion dv6-2155ee laptop keyboard
and that the use of Urdu as the sole national language is a form of cultural colonisation that ignores the rich cultural heritage of Pakistan’s diverse peoples.
The most successful of these movements is that of Bengali nationalism, whose proponents asserted that the fact that Urdu was the only language of Pakistan would give an unfair advantage to Mohajirs ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
(who speak Urdu as their mother tongue) and Punjabis (whose mother tongue Punjabi is quite similar to Urdu, and they were indeed already educated in Urdu under British rule). Bengalis thus feared they would be marginalised under this language policy despite their demographic strength as the largest ethnic group of Pakistan. Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
All these grievances culminated in the secession of East Bengal (which before secession was integrated in the administrative unit of East Pakistan) from Pakistan and the creation of the Bengali-speaking nation-state of Bangladesh. TOSHIBA Satellite L650D-13U laptop keyboard
Other nationalist movements include those of the Sindhis, Pashtuns, Baloch, Mohajirs and Kashmiris. The members of these movements assert that Pakistan is a multinational state as Islam cannot be considered the sole basis for nationhood. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
Their demands range from increased autonomy or the transformation of Pakistan into a federation, the recognition of language rights of non-Urdu-speaking populations, or outright secession from Pakistan. DELL Inspiron 1720 laptop keyboard
Despite the fact that Punjabis are widely seen as the dominant ethnic group in Pakistan in economic and political spheres, HP G61-415SA laptop keyboard
there are is also a small Punjabi language movement that asserts that the Punjabi language has been unfairly subordinated to Urdu and supports the reestablishment of cultural and economic links with Eastern Punjab in India. [9] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 laptop keyboard
Austria-Hungary, which succeeded the Austrian Empire, is a historical instance of a multinational state. The centrifugal forces within it, together with the loss of the First World War, led to its breaking up in 1918, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
when its successor states included the First Austrian Republic, the Kingdom of Hungary,Czechoslovakia, and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Parts of Austria-Hungary were also incorporated into Poland, Ukraine, the Kingdom of Romania and theKingdom of Italy. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
The Empire's principal languages were German, Hungarian, Polish, Czech and Croatian, but there were many more besides, including Ukrainian, Romanian, Slovak, Serbian, Slovene, Rusyn, Italian, and Yiddish.[10] HP Mini 110-1033CA laptop keyboard
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a union of Soviet republics (of which there were 15 after 1956) with the capital in Moscow. It was founded in December 1922 when the Russian SFSR, which formed during theRussian Revolution of 1917 and emerged victorious in the ensuing Russian Civil War, unified with theTranscaucasian, HP Pavilion dv6-3142se laptop keyboard
Ukrainian and Belorussian SSRs. Addressing the Extraordinary Eighth Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union on 25 November 1936, Stalin stated that "within the Soviet Union there are about sixty nations, national groups and nationalities. The Soviet state is a multi-national state."[11] LENOVO V-109820AS1-US laptop keyboard
In the late 1980s, some constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards or even declarations of sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR Constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede.[12] SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of that republic's residents vote for secession on a referendum.[13] Many held free elections, producing legislatures that soon passed legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws".SONY VAIO VGN-FS790B laptop keyboard
In 1989, the Russian SFSR, which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected the chairman of the Congress. HP Pavilion dv5-1212em laptop keyboard
On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR's laws. The period of legal uncertainty continued throughout 1991 as constituent republics slowly became de facto independent. SONY Vaio VGN-FW390 Laptop Keyboard
A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991, with the majority of the population voting for preservation of the Union in nine out of 15 republics. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost, and, HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard
in the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty was designed and agreed upon by eight republics which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser federation. The signing of the treaty, however, HP Pavilion dv6-3142tx Laptop Keyboard
was interrupted by the August Coup—an attemptedcoup d'état against Gorbachev by hardline Communist Party members of the government and the KGB, who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, ASUS X53 Laptop Keyboard
Yeltsin—who had publicly opposed it—came out as a hero while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared restoration of full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example), HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
while the other twelve republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union.
On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed the Belavezha Accords which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
While doubts remained over the authority of the Belavezha Accords to dissolve the Union, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia, including those republics that had signed the Belavezha Accords, HP Pavilion DV7-3162nr Laptop Keyboard
signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the dismemberment and consequential extinction of the USSR and restated the establishment of the CIS. The summit of Alma-Ata also agreed on several other practical measures consequential to the extinction of the Union. SONY VAIO VGN-CR31E Laptop Keyboard
On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev yielded to the inevitable and resigned as the president of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that until then were vested in the presidency over to Boris Yeltsin, president of Russia. HP Mini 110-3118cl Laptop Keyboard
The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, recognized the bankruptcy and collapse of the Soviet Union and dissolved itself. This is generally recognized as the official, HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard
final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state. Many organizations such as theSoviet Army and police forces continued to remain in place in the early months of 1992 but were slowly phased out and either withdrawn from or were absorbed by the newly independent states. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
The Russian Federation has over a hundred and sixty different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples. The largest population is the ethnic Russians, who are Slavswith Orthodox traditions, while the Tatars and Bashkirs have a Muslim culture. Russia also has Buddhist populations, such as the nomadic Buryats and Kalmyks, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
and the Shamanistic peoples of Siberia and the Extreme North, as well as the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Russian North West and the Volga Region and the peoples of the Northern Caucasus, all contributing to the extreme cultural and national diversity of the country.[14] DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
Out of a total of more than a hundred languages which are spoken in the Russian Federation, the country has twenty-seven official languages. More than 3% of the whole population of the Federation speak Tatar.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
In parts of the Federal state conflicts of nationality and other factors have led to secessionism, most notably in Chechnya, where the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and the Caucasus Emirate have sought independence from Russia.[16] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which before 3 October 1929 was known as theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia (to which the Kingdom of Montenegro was annexed on 13 November 1918, and the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris gave international recognition to the union on 13 July 1922).[17] ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941, and because of the events that followed, was officially abolished in 1943 and 1945.
The second country with this name was the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisansresistance movement during World War II. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
It was renamed to the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946, when a communist government was established. In 1963, it was renamed again to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, as Istria and Rijeka were added to the new Yugoslavia after the end of World War II. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
The constituent six Socialist Republics and two Socialist Autonomous Provinces that made up the country were: SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Slovenia and SR Serbia (including the autonomous provinces of SAP Vojvodina and SAP Kosovo which after 1974 were largely equal to the other members of the federation[18][19]). DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
Starting in 1991, the SFRY disintegrated in the Yugoslav Wars which followed the secession of most of the country's constituent entities. The next Yugoslavia, known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, existed until 2003, when it was renamed Serbia and Montenegro, but in 2006 this state finally separated into Serbiaand Montenegro. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard
Definition of ethnicity or nationality in Spain is fraught politically. The term "Spanish people" (pueblo español) is defined in the 1978 constitution as the political sovereign, i.e. the citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
The same constitution in its preamble speaks of "peoples and nationalities of Spain" (pueblos y nacionalidades de España) and their respective cultures, traditions, languages and institutions.
After the transition from Francoist Spain to the Kingdom of Spain in the 1970s, regionalism proliferated to become a major part of national politics. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51 1833 Laptop Keyboard
The CIA Factbook (2011) gives a racial description of "composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types" under "ethnic groups" instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition. This reflects the formation of the modern Kingdom of Spain by the accretion of several independent Iberian realms, i.e. Asturias, León, Galicia, DELL NSK-DCM01 Laptop Keyboard
Castile, Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia, Majorca, Valencia, Granada. The individual nationalities or peoples of these lands are the Asturians, Leonese,Galicians, Basques, Cantabrians, Castilians, Aragonese, Catalans, and Andalusians, individuals from which groups may or may not consider them "nations" apart depending on political outlook. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a 'nation state',[22][23] others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a 'multinational state',[24][25][26] ASUS F6VE Laptop Keyboard
and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales).[27]
The Kingdom of Great Britain was created by the political union of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland on 1 May 1707.[28] HP G72-250US Laptop Keyboard
This event was the result of the Treaty of Union that was agreed on 22 July 1706, and then ratified by both the Parliament of England and Parliament of Scotland each passing an Act of Union in 1707.[29] HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
The kingdoms of England and Scotland, together with the kingdom of Ireland, had already been in a personal union as a result of the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI, King of Scots inherited the Kingdoms of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London. However, until 1707, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
all three remained separate political entities and retained their separate political institutions.[30][31] At the outset of this state, many of its inhabitants retained the sensation of having English, Scottish, Welsh, or indeed Cornish nationality. It is also notable that languages other than English were spoken, principally Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Welsh, Cornish, and Norn. HP Pavilion DV8125NR Laptop Keyboard
Almost a century later the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the passing of the Act of Union 1800.[32] In this way, the United Kingdom became the union of the kingdoms ofEngland, Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2516 Laptop Keyboard
Ireland and Scotland.[30][31] Disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921,[33] with Dominion status for the Irish Free State in 1922 while Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.[34] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
As a result, in 1927, the formal title of the UK was changed to its current form, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[35] SONY VAIO PCG-FR215E laptop keyboard
The end of the 20th century saw major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales following pre-legislative referendums.[36] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
The Scottish National Party, a major political force and current party of government in Scotland, is committed to the goal of an independent Scotland within theEuropean Union, but this is opposed by the leadership of the next three largest parties in the Scottish Parliament. Plaid Cymru has a similar ambition for Wales.[37] HP Pavilion dv6-2131ee laptop keyboard
The present Republic of South Africa is the successor state of the Union of South Africa, which was formed from four British colonies in 1910. The Republic has eleven official languages (Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, SONY VAIO VGN-N31M/W laptop keyboard
Xhosa, Zulu, English and Afrikaans) and affords official recognition to several other languages spoken by minority nations. Many speakers of a language may in fact be from a different nationality, for example, HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
some members of both the Ndebele and the Twsana nations do speak Zulu; And groups such as the Thembu and Hlubi speak Xhosa as their home language. Further examples include theAfrikaners and Coloured communities -- both speak Afrikaans, large sections of the Indian community speak English as their home language, as do members of the British ethnic group. HP G61-420CA laptop keyboard
Just as in all parts of Africa (except for settler ethnic groups such as Dutch, English, Arab, Indian and Chinese ethnicities), the nations in South Africa correspond to specific regions in South Africa. Like other large cities in Africa, HP Pavilion DV7-3162nr laptop keyboard
cities such as Johannesburg see a mixing of various national groups found in the republic, leading to a "melting pot" of culture. ASUS F6A laptop keyboard
The South African government continuously attempts to unify the various nationalities in South Africa and to create the feeling of a South African identity. Struggles by South African leaders such as Bantu Biko help to re-create the African identity upon which South African identity is being built. DELL Vostro PP37L laptop keyboard
Many of the nationalities found in South Africa are also found in countries bordering South Africa. There are more Sotho, Tswana and Swazi people living in South Africa than in the bordering nation states of Lesotho, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
Botswana and Swaziland respectively. In the past this has led to conflict. Lesotho still claims large swathes of South Africa and in the past attempts were made to cede portions of South African territory to Botswana and Swaziland. ACER AEZU2R00010 laptop keyboard
It was originally intended that these three states be incorporated in the Union of South Africa, plans that never came to fruition due to power struggles within the apartheid governments in Southern Africa. DELL NSK-DCM01 Laptop Keyboard
The territory of the khanate comprised the Muslim Bolgar-populated lands of Bolğar, Cükätäw, Kazan, Qaşan duchies and other regions that originally belonged to Volga Bulgaria. The Volga, Kama and Vyatka were the main rivers of the khanate, as well as the major trade ways. DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard
The majority of the population were Kazan Tatars (i.e. Muslim Bolgars that adopted the Tatar language). Their self-identity was not restricted to Tatars; many identified themselves simply as Muslims or as "the people of Kazan". Islam was the state religion. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The local feudal nobility consisted of ethnic Bolgars, but the Kazan khans' court and body guard were composed of steppe Tatars (Kipchaks, and later of Nogais) that lived in Kazan. According to the Ginghizide tradition, the local Turkic tribes were also called Tatars by the steppe nobility and, later, by the Russian elite. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Part of the higher nobility hailed from the Golden Horde. It included members of four leading noble families: Arghin, Barin, Qipchaq, and Shirin.
Peoples subject to the khan included the Chuvash, Mari, Mordva, Tatar-Mishar, Udmurt, and Bashkir. HP Pavilion DV6-1000 laptop keyboard
The Permians and some of the Komi tribes were also incorporated into the Khanate. The Mishars had arrived during the period of the Golden Hordeand gradually assimilated the resident Finnic Mordvins and Burtas. SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
Their territory was governed by former steppe Tatars. Some of the Mishar duchies were never controlled from Kazan and instead gravitated towards the Qasim Khanate or Muscovite Russia.
Most of the khanate territory was covered by forests, and only the southern part adjoined the steppe. The main population of the steppes were the nomadic Manghites, also known as Nogais, SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
who sometimes recognized the rule of the Kazan khan, but more often raided agricultural Tatars and Chuvash, as they had done in the Golden Horde period. Later, Nogais were transplanted and replaced with Kalmyks. SONY VAIO VGN-NW120J laptop keyboard
More recently, this area was settled by Tatars, Chuvash and Russians, who erected defensive walls to guard the southern border. Since the khanate was established, Tatar Cossack troops defended the khanate from the Nogais. HP Pavilion dv6-2146so laptop keyboard
Russian sources indicate that at least five languages were used in the Kazan khanate. The first and foremost was the Tatar language, including the Middle dialect of the Kazan Tatars (formerly Muslim Bolgars) and the Western dialect of the Mishars (formerly steppe Tatars who had spoken Kipchak). ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
Its written form (Old Tatar language) was the favoured language of the state. The Chuvash language was a descendant of the Bolgar language, spoken by the pagan Chuvash people. The Bolgar language also strongly influenced the Middle dialect of Tatar language. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
The other three were probably the Mari language, the Mordvin languages and the Bashkir language, likewise developed from the Bolgar and Kipchak languages.
The state was governed by the khan. HP pavilion DV7-1040et laptop keyboard
His actions were based on decisions and consultations of a cabinet council, or Diwan. The nobility comprised the ranks of bäk (beg), ämir (emir), and morza. Military estates consisted of the uğlan (ulan), bahadir,içki (ichki). SONY VAIO VGN-FS790B laptop keyboard
Muslim clergy also played a major role. They were divided into säyet (seid), şäyex (sheikh), qazí (qazi), andimams. The ulema or clergy played a judicial role, and maintained the madrassas (schools) and maktabs (libraries). HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
The majority of the population were qara xalıq (black people): a free Muslim population, who lived on state land.[1] The feudal lands were mostly settled by çura (serfs). SONY VAIO VGN-FZ18E laptop keyboard
Prisoners of war were usually sold to Turkey or Central Asia. Occasionally they were sold within the Khanate as slaves (qol) and sometimes were settled on feudal lands to become çura later. The non-Muslim population of the Khanate were required to pay the yasaq. HP Pavilion dv6-3160ez laptop keyboard
The former territories of Volga Bulgaria (Kazan Ulus or Kazan Duchy) may have regained a degree of independence within the disintegrating Golden Horde by the turn of the 15th century. The principality was self-governed and maintained a dynasty of Bolgarrulers. Whatever the status of this proto-state, the founder of the khanate was Olug Moxammat. SONY Vaio VGN-FW390 laptop keyboard
It was in 1437 or 1438 that he assumed the title of khan and usurped the throne of Kazan with some help from local nobility. It has been suggested that the transfer of power from the local Bolgar dynasty to Moxammat was finalized by his son Maxmud in 1445. TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard
Throughout its history, the khanate was prone to civil turmoil and struggles for the throne. The khans were replaced 19 times in 115 years. There were a total of fifteen reigning khans, some ascending the throne multiple times. HP Pavilion dv5-1026eo laptop keyboard
The Khan was often elected from the Gengizides by vernacular nobility and even by the citizens themselves.
to provoke revolts (in 1496, 1500, and 1505), but with negligible results. SAMSUNG R20 laptop keyboard
In 1521, Kazan emerged from the dominance of Moscow, concluding a mutual aid treaty with the Astrakhan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate and the Nogay Horde. The combined forces of khan Muhamed Giray and his Crimean allies then attacked Muscovy and captured more than 150,000 slaves. DELL NSK-DCL01 Laptop Keyboard
Russian chronicles record about forty attacks of Kazan khans on the Russian territories (mainly the regions of Nizhniy Novgorod, Murom, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma, Galich) in the first half of the 16th century. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
The reinforcement of Crimea displeased the pro-Moscow elements of the Kazan Khanate, and some of these noblemen provoked a revolt in 1545. The result was the deposition of Safa Giray. A Moscow supporter, Şahğäli, occupied the throne. Following that year, Moscow organized several campaigns to impose control over Kazan, but the attempts were unsuccessful. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
Whether the khanate had its own flag is still unclear. Nevertheless, the Dutchman Carlus (Carel) Allard noted that Caesar of Tataria used two flags, and Zilant was pictured on the first.
With the help of the Nogays, Safa Giray returned to the throne. He executed 75 noblemen, and the rest of his opposition escaped to Russia. HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
In 1549 he died, and his 3-year old sonÜtämeşgäräy was recognized as khan. His regent and the de facto ruler of the khanate was his mother Söyembikä. The administration of the ulan Qoşçaq gained a degree of independence under her rule. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
At that time Safa Giray's relatives (including Devlet I Giray) were in Crimea. Their invitation to the throne of Kazan was vitiated by a large portion of vernacular nobility. Under Qoşçaq's government relations with Russia continued to worsen. A group of disgruntled noblemen at the beginning of 1551 invited a supporter of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, Şahğäli, for the second time. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
At the same time the lands to the east of the Volga River (Taw yağı) were ceded to Russia. Ütämeşgäräy, along with his mother, was sent to a Moscow prison. Şahğäli occupied the Kazan throne until February 1552. HP Mini 311-1037NR Laptop Keyboard
Anti-Moscow elements in the Kazan government exiled Şahğäli and invited the Astrakhan prince Yadegar Moxammad, along with the Nogays, to aid them.
Kazan was then put under siege. The forces of Ivan IV operated from the Russian castle of Sviyazhsk. In August 1552, the Russians defeated the Tatar inland troops, SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
burnt Archa and some castles. After two months of siege and destruction of the citadel walls on October 3, the Russians entered the city. Some defenders managed to escape but most were put to the sword. Yadegar Moxammad was imprisoned and the population was slaughtered. The Kazan Chronicle reports about 110,000 killed, SONY 9J.N0Q82.101 Laptop Keyboard
both civilians and garrison, and 60,000 - 100,000 Russians who had been kept captive in the khanate released. It is however well known that this chronicle is not completely reliable[citation needed]. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
After the fall of Kazan, territories such as Udmurtia and Bashkortostan joined Russia without a conflict. The khanate's administration was wiped out; pro-Moscow and neutral nobles kept their lands, but others were executed. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Tatars were then resettled far away from rivers, roads and Kazan. Free lands were settled by Russians and sometimes by pro-Russian Tatars. Orthodox bishops such as Germogen forcibly baptized many Tatars. TOSHIBA 6037b0026805 laptop keyboard
Until 1556, part of the population continued to resist Russian rule. The rebel governments were formed in Chalem and Mishatamaq. But as the Nogays under Ğäli Äkräm often raided the agricultural population, the coalition went to ruin. After a brutal repression against the Kazan rebels, their commanders were executed. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
By some estimates,[2] the population of the former khanate declined by several thousands during the wars. The colonial administration, known as the Kazan Palace's Office undertook the forced Russification and Christianization of the Tatars and other peoples.[3] The term Tsardom of Kazan was in use until 1708 when the Kazan Governorate was formed. SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard
According to some scholars,[citation needed] the Khanate of Kazan was briefly restored during the Time of Troubles with the help of the ethnic Russian population, but Russian forces under the leadership of Kuzma Minin suppressed the rebellion. SONY VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B laptop keyboard
Intellectual disability (ID) or general learning disability is a generalized disorder appearing before adulthood, characterized by significantly impaired cognitive functioning and deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors. Intellectual disability is also known as mental retardation (MR), although this older term is being used less frequently.[1][2] TOSHIBA 9J.N9282.W01 laptop keyboard
It was historically defined as an intelligence quotient score under 70. Once focused almost entirely oncognition, the definition now includes both a component relating to mental functioning and one relating to individuals' functional skills in their environment. TOSHIBA Satellite L650-11J laptop keyboard
As a result, a person with an unusually low IQ may not be considered intellectually disabled. Intellectual disability is subdivided into syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits associated with other medical and behavioral signs and symptoms are present, HP Pavilion dv6-2150us laptop keyboard
and non-syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits appear without other abnormalities.
The terms used for this condition are subject to a process called the euphemism treadmill. This means that whatever term is chosen for this condition, HP Pavilion DV6-1205ee laptop keyboard
it eventually becomes perceived as an insult. The terms mental retardation and mentally retarded were invented in the middle of the 20th century to replace the previous set of terms, which were deemed to have become offensive. HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
By the end of the 20th century, these terms themselves have come to be widely seen as disparaging and politically incorrect and in need of replacement.[3] The term intellectual disability is now preferred by most advocates and researchers in most English-speaking countries.[1][2] As of 2013, HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
the term "mental retardation" is still used by the World Health Organization in the ICD-10 codes, which have a section titled "Mental Retardation" (codes F70–F79). In the next revision, the ICD-11 is expected to replace the term "mental retardation" with "intellectual disability," and the DSM-5 has replaced it with "intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)."[4][5] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Because of its specificity and lack of confusion with other conditions, the term "mental retardation" is still sometimes used in professional medical settings around the world, such as formal scientific research and health insurance paperwork.[6] HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
Children with intellectual disability learn more slowly than a typical child. Children may take longer to learn language, develop social skills, and take care of their personal needs, such as dressing or eating. Learning will take them longer, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
require more repetition, and skills may need to be adapted to their learning level. Nevertheless, virtually every child is able to learn, develop and become a participating member of the community. HP Mini 311-1000NR laptop keyboard
In early childhood, mild intellectual disability (IQ 50–69) may not be obvious, and may not be identified until children begin school.[7] Even when poor academic performance is recognized, it may take expert assessment to distinguish mild intellectual disability from learning disability or emotional/behavioral disorders. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
People with mild intellectual disability are capable of learning reading and mathematics skills to approximately the level of a typical child aged nine to twelve.[7] They can learn self-care and practical skills, such as cooking or using the local mass transit system.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F laptop keyboard
As individuals with intellectual disability reach adulthood, many learn to live independently and maintain gainful employment.
Moderate intellectual disability (IQ 35–49) is nearly always apparent within the first years of life. Speech delays are particularly common signs of moderate MR.[7] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5282 laptop keyboard
People with moderate intellectual disability need considerable supports in school, at home, and in the community in order to participate fully. While their academic potential is limited, they can learn simple health and safety skills and to participate in simple activities.[7] As adults they may live with their parents, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
in a supportive group home, or even semi-independently with significant supportive services to help them, for example, manage their finances. As adults, they may work in a sheltered workshop.[7] HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
A person with severe or profound intellectual disability will need more intensive support and supervision his or her entire life.[7] They may learn someactivities of daily living. Some will require full-time care by an attendant.[7] HP AENM7U00210 Laptop Keyboard
The first English-language IQ test, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, was adapted from a test battery designed for school placement by Alfred Binet in France. Lewis Terman adapted Binet's test and promoted it as a test measuring "general intelligence." ACER Aspire 5235 Laptop Keyboard
Terman's test was the first widely used mental test to report scores in "intelligence quotient" form ("mental age" divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100). Current tests are scored in "deviation IQ" form, with a performance level by a test-taker two standard deviations below the median score for the test-taker's age group defined as IQ 70. ACER Aspire 2920Z Laptop Keyboard
Until the most recent revision of diagnostic standards, an IQ of 70 or below was a primary factor for intellectual disability diagnosis, and IQ scores were used to categorize degrees of intellectual disability. SONY 147977821 Laptop Keyboard
Since current diagnosis of intellectual disability is not based on IQ scores alone, but must also take into consideration a person's adaptive functioning, the diagnosis is not made rigidly. It encompasses intellectual scores, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
adaptive functioning scores from an adaptive behavior rating scale based on descriptions of known abilities provided by someone familiar with the person, and also the observations of the assessment examiner who is able to find out directly from the person what he or she can understand, SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D laptop keyboard
communicate, and such like. IQ assessment must be based on a current test. This enables diagnosis to avoid the pitfall of the Flynn Effect, which is a consequence of changes in population IQ test performance changing IQ test norms over time. Packard Bell Easynote LM94 laptop keyboard
By most definitions intellectual disability is more accurately considered a disability rather than a disease. Intellectual disability can be distinguished in many ways from mental illness, such as schizophrenia or depression. Currently, there is no "cure" for an established disability, though with appropriate support and teaching, most individuals can learn to do many things. Compaq Presario CQ71-240SG laptop keyboard
There are thousands of agencies around the world that provide assistance for people with developmental disabilities. They include state-run, for-profit, and non-profit, privately run agencies. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-130EB laptop keyboard
Within one agency there could be departments that include fully staffed residential homes, day rehabilitation programs that approximate schools, workshops wherein people with disabilities can obtain jobs, SONY Vaio VGN-AW190 laptop keyboard
programs that assist people with developmental disabilities in obtaining jobs in the community, programs that provide support for people with developmental disabilities who have their own apartments, HP G61-420CA laptop keyboard
programs that assist them with raising their children, and many more. There are also many agencies and programs for parents of children with developmental disabilities.
Beyond that there are specific programs that people with developmental disabilities can take part in wherein they learn basic life skills. HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
These "goals" may take a much longer amount of time for them to accomplish, but the ultimate goal is independence. This may be anything from independence in tooth brushing to an independent residence. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
People with developmental disabilities learn throughout their lives and can obtain many new skills even late in life with the help of their families, caregivers, clinicians and the people who coordinate the efforts of all of these people. HP Pavilion dv6-2140ed laptop keyboard
Although there is no specific medication for intellectual disability, many people with developmental disabilities have further medical complications and may be prescribed several medications. ACER TravelMate 6293 laptop keyboard
For example autistic children with developmental delay may be prescribed antipsychotics or mood stabilizers to help with their behavior. Use of psychotropic medications such as benzodiazepines in people with intellectual disability requires monitoring and vigilance as side effects occur commonly and are often misdiagnosed as behavioural and psychiatric problems.[16] ACER Aspire 2920Z-2A2G16Mi laptop keyboard
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