Lázaro Cárdenas
Lázaro Cárdenas was born on May 21, 1895 in a lower-middle-class family in the village of Jiquilpan, Michoacán. He supported his family (including his mother and seven younger siblings) from age 16 after the death of his father. IBM ThinkPad T40 2669 laptop keyboard
By the age of 18 he had worked as a tax collector, a printer's devil, and a jailkeeper. Although he left school at the age of eleven, he used every opportunity to educate himself and read widely throughout his life, especially works of history. HP Mini 210-2170nr laptop keyboard
Cárdenas set his sights on becoming a teacher, but was drawn into politics and the military during the Mexican Revolution after Victoriano Huerta overthrew PresidentFrancisco Madero. He backed Plutarco Elías Calles, and after Calles became president, Cárdenas became governor of Michoacán in 1928. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
During his four years as governor, Cárdenas initiated a modest re-distribution of land at the state level, encouraged the growth of peasant and labour organizations, and made improvements to education at a time when it was neglected by the federal government. Cárdenas ensured that teachers were paid on time, TOSHIBA Satellite L45-S7409 laptop keyboard
made personal inspections of many classrooms, and opened a hundred new rural schools. His grassroots style of governing was such that during his time as governor, Cárdenas made important policy decisions based on direct information received from the public rather than on the advice of his confidants.[1] GATEWAY M-6846 laptop keyboard
Calles continued to dominate Mexico after his presidency with administrations that were his puppets. After having two of his hand-picked men put into the position, the PNR balked at his first choice, Manuel Pérez Treviño, Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
in 1932. Instead they selected Cárdenas to be the ruling party's presidential candidate, and Calles went along with it, thinking he could control him as he had the previous two. This however, was not so. Cárdenas' first move once he took office late in 1934 was to have his presidential salary cut in half. Even more surprising moves would follow. After establishing himself in the presidency, SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
Cárdenas and the Mexican Congress turned on Calles and condemned his continued war-like persecution of the Catholic Church.[2] In 1936, Cárdenas had Calles and twenty of his corrupt associates arrested and deported to the United States,[3] a decision that was greeted with great enthusiasm by the majority of the Mexican public. During the course of his presidency, SONY Vaio PCG-K415B laptop keyboard
Cárdenas became known for his progressive program of building roads and schools and promoting education, with twice as much federal money allocated to rural education as all his predecessors combined.[1] SONY VAIO VPCF121FX laptop keyboard
He also promoted land reform and social security during his time in office. Regarded as a great social reformer, Cardenas’ agrarian land reforms and extensive building programme of country schools helped better the lot of the rural poor.[4] FUJITSU Lifebook T4210 laptop keyboard
During his time in office, Cárdenas openly sought the National Revolutionary Party's six-year plan of social and political reform.[3] The plan called for 1)restoration of the system of ejidos (common lands) through a strong agrarian program to combat the domination of the large haciendas; 2) HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
modern secular schools that would teach rationalist doctrines and combat the "fanaticism" of the Church; and 3) workers' cooperatives to oppose the excesses of industrial capitalism.[3] Cárdenas subsequently decreed the end of the use of capital punishment (in Mexico, usually in the form of a firing squad). SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard
Capital punishment has been banned in Mexico since that time. The control of the republic by Cárdenas and the PRI (Partido Revolucionario Institucional) predecessor Partido de la Revolución Mexicana without widespread bloodshed effectively signalled the end of rebellions that began with the 1910 Mexican Revolution. Despite the fact that Cárdenas enforced a policy of socialist education, relations with the Church also improved greatly during his time in office.[5] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
Cárdenas was perhaps the only Mexican President who never employed armored cars or bodyguards to protect himself. In the presidential campaign of 1934, he travelled through much of the republic that was not accessible by train, by auto and horseback, accompanied only by Rafael M Pedrajo by a chauffeur and an aide-de-camp. HP Pavilion dv3-2175ee laptop keyboard
This fearlessness generated widespread respect for Cárdenas by the electorate. He became the first occupant of the current official presidential residence of Los Pinos, and converted the previous residence, the ostentatious Chapultepec Castle, into the National Museum of History. HP Pavilion dv5-1015tx laptop keyboard
Russian exile Leon Trotsky was welcomed into Mexico by Cárdenas, reportedly to counter accusations that Cárdenas was a Stalinist. Cárdenas, like his 1920s predecessor Álvaro Obregón, understood that left wing and labor union support was critical to maintain control of the republic. The bloated and corrupt CROMunion ofHP Pavilion dv6-3046eo laptop keyboard
Luis Morones was marginalized as Cárdenas promoted the "purified" Confederation of Mexican Workers of socialist Vicente Lombardo Toledano. The CTM and Toledano in turn supported Cárdenas' deportation of ex-President Calles. Cárdenas was not as left-wing as Leon Trotsky and other socialists would wish, but still Trotsky described Cárdenas' government as the only honest government in the world. Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas sought to actively help the Republican government in the Spanish Civil War, but those efforts were largely thwarted by the administration of US President FDR Roosevelt. After the war ended with the defeat of the loyalist Republicans, Toshiba Satellite A55-S1064 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas gave specific instructions to his ambassador and envoys in Europe to give safe haven and protection to all exiles, including Republican President Manuel Azaña, actively sought for deportation by the victorious Nationalists and by the Vichy French. Dell Latitude E6510 Laptop CPU Fan
Azaña died in France under Mexican diplomatic protection, but Cárdenas was able to bring to Mexico tens of thousands of refugees, among them distinguished intellectuals who left a lasting imprint in Mexican cultural life. Toshiba Satellite M70-226 Laptop CPU Fan
Not only intellectuals were granted asylum in Mexico: from the 4,559 passengers who arrive to Mexico in 1939 on board the ships Sinaia, Ipanema and Mexique, for example, the largest groups were formed by technicians and qualified workers (32%), farmers and ranchers (20%), along with professionals, technicians, workers, business people students and merchants – this last group representing 43% of the total.[6] HP 535439-001 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas is considered by many historians to be the creator of a political system that lasted in Mexico until the end of the 1980s. Central to this project was the organization of corporatist structures for trade unions, campesino (peasant) organizations, ACER Aspire 3810T laptop keyboard
and middle-class professionals and office workers within the reorganized ruling party, now renamed the Party of the Mexican Revolution (PRM). During Cárdenas' presidency, the government enacted a great deal of the land reform that Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata had envisioned, and redistributed 45 million acres (180,000 km2) of hacienda land to peasants.[7] HP G62-110EE laptop keyboard
Additionally, urban and industrial workers gained unprecedented unionization rights and wage increases. The railway Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México was nationalized in 1938 and put under a "workers' administration." However, SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
Cárdenas and subsequent presidents also used the PRM and its successor, the Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI, to maintain political control; leaders of the worker and campesino organizations delivered votes and suppressed protests in exchange for personal favors and concessions to their constituencies. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 laptop keyboard
At first, the oil nationalization policy earned Cárdenas great respect among Mexicans and in many other Latin America countries.[5] IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard
In later years, however, Cárdenas' oil policy proved to be unpopular.[8] Vincente Lombardo Toledano took advantage of Cárdenas' unpopularity and organized pro-Communist militias.[8] This move by Lombardo would lead to the rise of right-wing militias lead by General Juan Andreu as well.[9] HP 7F0844 laptop keyboard
In the elections of 1940, Cárdenas, in a surprise move with hopes of preventing another uprising in the country, endorsed the PRM nominee Manuel Ávila Camacho,[9] a moderate conservative.[10] Cárdnas hoped Ávila would salvage some of his liberal policies[9] and form a compromise candidate compared to his conservative opponent, Juan Andreu. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Open and free campaigning was anticipated. The elections, however, did not follow the pattern Cárdenas wished. The campaign was peppered with violent incidents, and on election day the opposing parties hijacked numerous polling places and each issued their own "election results." After "official" results declared Ávila as winner, Andreu threatened revolt and then attempted to set up a parallel government and congress. Nevertheless, GATEWAY P-6301 laptop keyboard
Ávila crushed Andreu's forces[8] and assumed office.[8] His inauguration was attended by US Vice President-elect Henry A. Wallace,[8] who was appointed by the US as a "special representative with the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary" for Mexico.[8] SONY VAIO VGN-N270E/T laptop keyboard
Also central to Cárdenas' project were nationalistic economic policies involving Mexico's vast oil production, which had soared following strikes in 1910 in the area known as the "Golden Lane", near Tampico, and which made Mexico the world's second-largest oil producer by 1921, supplying approximately 20 percent of domestic demand in the United States. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
Cárdenas' efforts to negotiate with Mexican Eagle, in the managerial control of Royal Dutch/Shell and Standard Oil of New Jersey, were unavailing, and the companies rejected a solution proposed by a presidential commission. Dell 5HN30 Laptop CPU Fan
So at 9:45 pm on the evening of March 18, 1938, Cárdenas nationalized Mexico's petroleum reserves and expropriated the equipment of the foreign oil companies in Mexico. The announcement inspired a spontaneous six-hour parade in Mexico City; it was followed by a national fund-raising campaign to compensate the companies. HP Pavilion dv6135nr Laptop CPU Fan
Even though compensation for the expropriated assets was included in this legislation, the act angered the international business community and vexed Western governments, especially the United Kingdom. HP Pavilion dv7-6b55dx Laptop CPU Fan
The government was more worried about the lack of the technical knowledge required to run the refineries. Before leaving, the oil companies had made sure they did not leave behind anything of value to the Mexican government, Dell Latitude E6510 Laptop CPU Fan
hoping to force Cárdenas to accept their conditions. Although Mexico was eventually able to restart the oil fields and refineries, production did not rise to pre-takeover levels until after the entry of the United States into World War II, when technical advisers were sent by the United States as part of the overall Allied war effort. HP Pavilion dv6-3077ca Laptop CPU Fan
The British severed diplomatic relations with Cárdenas' government, and Mexican oil and other goods were boycotted, despite an international ruling in favor of Mexico's government. However, with the outbreak of World War II, oil became a highly sought-after commodity. [11] HP Pavilion dv7-4087cl Laptop CPU Fan
The company that Cárdenas founded, Petróleos Mexicanos (or Pemex), would later be a model for other nations seeking greater control over their own oil and natural gas resources and, 70 years later, Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX Laptop CPU Fan
it remains the most important source of income for the country, despite weakening finances. Seeing the need to assure the technical expertise needed to run it, Cárdenas founded the National Polytechnic Institute. HP GC055515VH-A Laptop CPU Fan
After his presidential term, Cárdenas served as Mexico's secretary of defense until 1945.
It is often said that Lázaro Cárdenas was the only president associated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who did not use the office to make himself wealthy. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Fan
He retired to a modest home by Lake Pátzcuaro and worked the rest of his life supervising irrigation projects and promoting free medical clinics and education for the nation's poor. He also continued to speak out about international political issues and in favor of greater democracy and human rights in Latin America and elsewhere. SONY Vaio VGN-BX41XN Laptop CPU Fan
For example, he was one of the participants in the Russell Tribunal for investigating war crimes in Vietnam.
Lázaro Cárdenas died of cancer in Mexico City on October 19, 1970 at the age of 75. His son Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and his grandson Lázaro Cárdenas Batel have been prominent Mexican politicians. HP Pavilion dv9570ef Laptop CPU Fan
In his honor, his name was given to a number of cities, towns, and a municipality in Mexico, including Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán, the municipality of Lázaro Cárdenas, Quintana Roo, Lázaro Cárdenas, Jalisco, and other smaller communities. Dell Vostro 3350 Laptop CPU Fan
There are also many streets that have been named after him, including the Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas in Mexico City and highways in Guadalajara, Monterrey and Mexicali. Šetalište Lazaro Kardenasa (Lázaro Cárdenas promenade) in Belgrade,Serbia, Toshiba Satellite L500-208 Laptop CPU Fan
is also named after him, as is a street in Barcelona, Spain, and a monument in a park in Madrid dedicated to his memory for his role in admitting defeated Spanish Republicans to Mexico after the Civil War in that country. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Fan
In 1955 Lázaro Cárdenas was awarded the Stalin Peace Prize, which was later renamed for Lenin as part of de-Stalinization.
President Cárdenas and his administration are given credit by socialists for expanding the distribution of land to the peasants, COMPAQ Presario CQ42-116TU Laptop CPU Fan
establishing new welfare programs for the poor, and nationalizing the railroad and petroleum industries, including the oil company that Cárdenas founded, Petróleos Mexicanos. Toward the end of his presidency, unhappy landowners and foreign capitalists began to challenge his programs and his power. Dell Latitude E6510 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas' party, the PRI, continued in power until 2000. This is attributed by some to electoral fraud and coercion. This legacy led his son, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, to form the Democratic Revolution Party (PRD) to contest the 1988 presidential election. Since that year, HP Pavilion dv6121eu Laptop CPU Fan
the PRD has become one of the three major parties in Mexico, gaining working class support that was previously enjoyed by the PRI.
In his Political Testament, written the year before his death and published posthumously, he acknowledged that his regime had failed to make the changes in distribution of political power and corruption that were the basis for his presidency and the revolution. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
He expressed his dismay in the fact that some people and groups were making themselves rich to the detriment of the mainly poor majority. It was said about Cárdenas at his eulogy that, "he was the greatest figure produced by the revolution… an authentic revolutionary who aspired to the greatness of his country, not personal aggrandizement." ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard
Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay patterned his people–oriented government on the principles which he found a biography of Cárdenas written by William Cameron Townsend.
Plutarco Elías Calles (Spanish pronunciation: [pluˈtarko eˈli.as ˈkaʝes]; September 25, 1877 –HP Pavilion DV6-1027nr Laptop Keyboard
October 19, 1945) was a Mexican general and politician. He was the powerful interior minister under President Álvaro Obregón, who chose Calles as his successor. The 1924 Calles presidential campaign was the first populist presidential campaign in the nation's history, HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard
as he called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, more education, additional labor rights, and democratic governance.[3] Calles indeed tried to fulfill his promises during his populist phase (1924–26), Lenovo 0A62075 Laptop Keyboard
but entered a repressive and violent anti-Catholic phase (1926–28).
After leaving office he continued to be the dominant leader from 1928–1935, a period known as the maximato. ACER Aspire 5740 Laptop Keyboard
Calles is most noted for a fierce oppression of Catholics that led to the Cristero War, a civil war between Catholic rebels and government forces, and for founding the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (National Revolutionary Party, GATEWAY M-6846 Laptop Keyboard
or PNR), which became the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (Party of the Mexican Revolution, or PRM) which eventually became theInstitutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), that governed Mexico from 1929 to 2000 under these three different names. HP Pavilion dv6-3056ez Laptop Keyboard
Elías Calles grew up in poverty and deprivation, the son of an alcoholic who was not married to his mother. He adopted the Calles surname from the uncle who raised him after the death of his mother, Maria de Jesús Campuzano. This uncle was an ardent atheist and raised his nephew with a fanatical hatred of the Catholic Church.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
His father, also called Plutarco Elías, was descended from a prominent family in the Provincias Internas, most often recorded as Elías González. The first of this line to settle in Mexico was Francisco Elías González (1707–1790), HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
who emigrated from La Rioja, Spain, to Zacatecas, Mexico, in 1729. Eventually, he moved north to Chihuahua, where, as commander of the presidio of Terrenate, he played a role in the wars against the Yaqui and Apache. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
The younger Plutarco worked many different jobs, from bartender to schoolteacher, and always had a keen sense of political opportunity.[5] He was a supporter ofFrancisco I. Madero, under whom he became a police commissioner, HP Probook 4710S Laptop Keyboard
and his ability to align himself with the political winners of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) allowed him to move up the ranks quickly; he attained the rank of general in 1915. He led the Constitutional Army in his home state of Sonora and managed to repel the conventionalists of José María Maytorena and Pancho Villa in the Battle of Agua Prieta in 1915.[6] TOSHIBA Portege S100-s213 Laptop Keyboard
In 1915, Elías Calles became governor of Sonora, known as one of the most reformist politicians of his generation. His radical rhetoric tended to conceal the pragmatic essence of his policy, which was to promote the rapid growth of the Mexican national economy, whose infrastructure he helped to establish. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Fan
In particular, he attempted to make Sonora a dry state,[6] promoted legislation giving social security and collective bargaining to workers, and expelled all Catholic priests. In 1919, Venustiano Carranza promoted Calles to Secretary of Commerce, Industry and Labor. In 1920 he aligned himself with Álvaro Obregón to overthrow Carranza, HP Pavilion dv6-2005sl Laptop CPU Fan
and Obregón named him head of the interior ministry.[6] Calles used his ability to draw in labor class votes to come to power with Obregón. He aligned himself with the Laborist Party and was in 1924 elected president, defeating the agrarianist candidate Ángel Flores and the eccentric perennial candidate Nicolás Zúñiga y Miranda. HP Mini 1001TU Laptop Keyboard
Calles' presidency was supported by labor and peasant unions. The Laborist party which supported his government in reality functioned as the political-electoral branch of the powerful Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers(CROM), Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
led by Luis Napoleón Morones. Shortly before his inauguration he had travelled to Europe to study social democracy and the labor movement, and he tried to implement the things he had learned there in Mexico. HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
Calles supported land reforms and promoted the ejido as a way to emancipate campesinos, but no large tracts of land were redistributed under his presidency nonetheless. Calles founded several banks in support of campesinos as well as the Banco de México, TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G Laptop Keyboard
Mexico's national bank. Calles's finance secretary Alberto J. Pani managed to achieve debt relief of a part of Mexico's foreign debt, but after a conflict with Calles, Pani resigned in 1927. Calles also appointed men such as Jose Vasconcelos and Moises Saenz to reform Mexico's education system. SONY VGN-FE670G Laptop Keyboard
Calles changed Mexico's civil code to give illegitimate children the same rights as legitimate, partly as a reaction against the problems he himself often had encountered being a child of unmarried parents. ACER 9J.N1H82.01D Laptop Keyboard
According to false rumours,[7] his parents had been Syrians or Turks, giving him the nickname El Turco (The Turk). His detractors drew comparisons between Calles and the "Grand Turk", the anti-Christian leaders from the era of the Crusades. In order not to draw too much attention to his unhappy childhood, Calles chose to ignore those rumours rather than to fight them.[8][9] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
One of the major points of contention with the U.S. was oil. Calles quickly rejected the Bucareli Agreements of 1923 between the U.S. and Mexico, when Álvaro Obregón was president, and began drafting a new oil law that would strictly enforce article 27 of the Mexican constitution. The oil problem stemmed from article 27 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, HP Pavilion G7-1081NR Laptop Keyboard
which re-stated a law from Spanish origin that made everything under the soil property of the state. The language of article 27 threatened the oil possession of U.S. and European oil companies, especially if the article was applied retroactively. ACER PK1307R1A01 Laptop Keyboard
A Mexican Supreme Court decision had ruled that foreign-owned fields could not be seized as long as they were already in operation before the constitution went into effect. The Bucareli Agreements stated that Mexico would agree to respect the Mexican Supreme Court decision in exchange for official recognition from Washington of the presidency of Álvaro Obregón.[10] HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
The reaction of the U.S. government to Calles's intention to enforce article 27 was swift. The American ambassador to Mexico branded Calles a communist, and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg issued a threat against Mexico on 12 June 1925.[11] GATEWAY M-6834 Laptop Keyboard
Calles himself never considered himself a communist but considered revolution a way of governing rather than an ideological position.[citation needed] Public opinion in the United States turned particularly anti-Mexican when the first embassy of the Soviet Union in any country was opened in Mexico, FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard
on which occasion the Soviet ambassador remarked that "no other two countries show more similarities than the Soviet Union and Mexico".[12] After this, some in the United States government, considering Calles's regime Bolshevik, started to refer to Mexico as "Soviet Mexico".[13] SONY Vaio PCG-K25 Laptop Keyboard
The debate on the new oil law occurred in 1925, with U.S. interests opposing all initiatives. By 1926, the new law was enacted. In January 1927 the Mexican government canceled the permits of oil companies that would not comply with the law. SONY VAIO VGN-N220E/W Laptop Keyboard
Talks of war circulated by the U.S. president and in the editorial pages of the New York Times. Mexico managed to avoid war through a series of diplomatic maneuvers. Soon after, a direct telephone link was established between Calles and President Calvin Coolidge, HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard
and the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, James R. Sheffield, was replaced with Dwight Morrow. Morrow won the Calles government over to the United States position and helped negotiate an agreement between the government and the oil companies.[14] HP Pavilion dv7-3190eiCPU Fan
Another source of conflict with the United States was Mexico's support for the liberals in the civil war in Nicaragua, as the United States supported the conservatives. This conflict ended when both countries signed a treaty in which they allowed each other to support the side they considered to be the most democratic. Toshiba Satellite P505D-S8934CPU Fan
On 14 June 1926, President Calles enacted anticlerical legislation known formally as The Law Reforming the Penal Code and unofficially as the Calles Law.[15] Hisanti-Catholic actions included outlawing religious orders, IBM MCF-224PAM05CPU Fan
depriving the Church of property rights and depriving the clergy of civil liberties, including their right to trial by jury (in cases involving anti-clerical laws) and the right to vote.[15][16] Catholic antipathy towards Calles was enhanced because of his vocal atheism.[1] Dell Latitude E6510CPU Fan
On 28 May 1926, Calles was awarded a medal of merit from the head of Mexico's Scottish Rite of Freemasonry for his actions against the Catholics.[17]
Like Obregón (his predecessor), Calles was a practicing Freemason and fervently anti-Catholic.[18][19] Regarding this period, Dell Latitude E6500CPU Fan
recent President Vicente Foxstated, "After 1917, Mexico was led by anti-Catholic Freemasons who tried to evoke the anticlerical spirit of popular indigenous President Benito Juárez of the 1800s. But the military dictators of the 1920s were a lot more savage than Juárez."[20] IBM MCF-C10AM05CPU Fan
Due to Calles's strict and sometimes violent enforcement of anti-clerical laws, people in strongly Catholic areas, especially the states of Jalisco, Zacatecas,Guanajuato, Colima and Michoacán, began to oppose him, HP KSB06105HACPU Fan
and on 1 January 1927, a war cry went up from the faithful Catholics, "¡Viva Cristo Rey!" Government hostility to Catholicism led to the Cristero War from 1926 to 1929, which was characterized by reprisals and counter-reprisals. The Mexican government violently persecuted the clergy, massacring suspected Cristeros and their supporters. Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056CPU Fan
About 90,000 people on both sides died in the war. A truce was negotiated with the assistance of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow in which the Cristeros agreed to lay down their arms.[21] Calles, however, did not abide by the terms of the truce; HP 646578-001CPU Fan
he had approximately five hundred Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros shot, frequently in their homes in front of their wives and children.[21] Particularly offensive to Catholics after the supposed truce was Calles's insistence on a complete state monopoly on education, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
suppressing all Catholic education and introducing "socialist" education in its place, saying: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth."[21] The persecution continued as Calles maintained control under his Maximato and did not relent until 1940, when President Manuel Ávila Camacho, a practicing Catholic, took office.[21] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
The effects of Calles's policy on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 4,000 priests were killed or expelled; one of the most famous was the Jesuit Miguel Pro.[21] Where there were 4,500 priests in Mexico prior to the rebellion, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, execution and assassination.[21][22] By 1935, seventeen states had no priests at all.[23] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
Under Calles's rule in 1926, a constitutional change was passed that allowed for a non-consecutive re-election,[24] and in 1928 Obregón was elected as Calles's successor; this amendment was later repealed in 1934.[25] In addition, Mexico passed an amendment to the constitution in 1927 that allowed a President to serve a six-year term.[26] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
However, Obregón was murdered by José de León Toral, a Catholic militant, before he could assume power. To avoid a political vacuum, Calles named himself Jefe Máximo, the political chieftain of Mexico and Emilio Portes Gil was appointed temporary president, HP 532617-001CPU Fan
although in reality he was little more than a puppet of Calles. The following year, Calles founded the PNR, or Partido Nacional Revolucionario, the predecessor of today's Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI).
The period which Obregón had been elected to serve between 1928 and 1934, in which Calles was Jefe Máximo, is known as the Maximato in Mexican history, with many regarding Emilio Portes Gil, HP 610777-001CPU Fan
Pascual Ortiz Rubio, and Abelardo Rodríguez as his puppets. Officially, after 1929, he served as minister of war, as he continued to suppress the rebellion of the Cristero War, but a few months later, after intervention of the United States ambassador Dwight Morrow, the Mexican government and the Cristeros signed a peace treaty. Dell Vostro 3350CPU Fan
During the Maximato, Calles became increasingly authoritarian and would also serve as Minister of Industry and Commerce.[27] In the early 1930s he appears to have flirted with the idea of implementing aspects of fascism in the government,[28] HP Pavilion dv7-6143clCPU Fan
and the ideology clearly had an influence on him.[29] After a large demonstration in 1930, the Mexican Communist Party was banned, Mexico stopped its support for the rebels of César Sandino in Nicaragua, strikes were no longer tolerated, and the government ceased re-distributing lands amongst poorer peasants. Dell Vostro 3450CPU Fan
Calles had once been the candidate of the workers and at one point had used Communist unions in his campaign against competing labor organizers but later, having acquired wealth and engaging in finance, suppressed Communism.[30] DELL Vostro A860CPU Fan
By the summer of 1933, two of old wartime subordinates of Calles had risen to the top of the party: Manuel Pérez Treviño and Lázaro Cárdenas[31] Calles sought to have Trevino be the party's nominee at the time, seeing that he would be the most likely to continue his policies,[31] DELL Studio 1737CPU Fan
but soon caved into pressure from party officials and agreed to support the popular land reformer Cárdenas as the PNR's presidential candidate in the 1934 Mexican Presidential election.[31] Because Cárdenas had long been associated with Calles since he joined his army in Sonora in 1915,[31] HP Pavilion dv7-6059eoCPU Fan
he was trusted by the callistas and Calles was under the false assumption he could control Cárdenas as he had controlled his predecessors.[31] Soon after his inauguration, however, conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas started to arise. HP 606574-001CPU Fan
Calles opposed Cárdenas's support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, while Cárdenas opposed Calles's violent methods and his closeness to fascist organizations, most notably the Gold Shirts of general Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco, which harassed Communists, Jews and Chinese.[32] Dell Latitude E6510CPU Fan
Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically, removing the callistas from political posts and exiling his most powerful allies: Tomás Garrido Canabal, Fausto Topete, Emilio Portes Gil, Saturnino Cedillo, Aarón Sáenz and finally Calles himself. HP COMPAQ 2510P SeriesCPU Fan
Calles and Luis Napoleón Morones, one of the last remaining influential callistas and onetime Minister of Agriculture,[27] were charged with conspiring to blow up a railroad and placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas. HP 606574-001CPU Fan
Calles was deported to the United States on 9 April 1936 along with the three last highly-influential callistas in Mexico—Morones, Luis León (leader of the Radical Civic Union in Mexico),[33] Toshiba Qosmio G40-10ECPU Fan
and General Rafael Melchor Ortega(onetime Governor of Guanajuato) -- plus his secretary and his son Alfredo.[27] At the time of his arrest, he was reportedly reading a Spanish translation of Mein Kampf.[34][35] Dell Vostro 3350CPU Fan
In exile in the United States, Calles was in contact with various American fascists, although he rejected their anti-Semitic and anti-Mexican sentiments, and also befriended José Vasconcelos, a Mexican philosopher who had previously been a political enemy. Toshiba MF60120V1-B100-G99CPU Fan
Calles was allowed to return to Mexico under the reconciliation policy of Cárdenas's successor Manuel Ávila Camacho in 1941. He spent his last years quietly in Mexico City and Cuernavaca.
Back in Mexico, Calles's political position became more moderate; in 1942 he supported Mexico's declaration of war upon the Axis powers. HP Pavilion dv7-6059eoCPU Fan
In his last years he reportedly became interested in Spiritualism.[36] A few months before his death in October 1945, aged 68, Calles reportedly stated that he "most certainly believed" in a higher power.[37] Toshiba Satellite M70-122CPU Fan
Calles' main legacy was the pacification of Mexico ending the violent era of the Mexican Revolution through the creation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR) which eventually became Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), HP Pavilion dv4-1313dxCPU Fan
which governed Mexico until 2000.
Calles's legacy remains controversial today. He is honored with statues in Sonoyta, Hermosillo, and his hometown of Guaymas. Toshiba Satellite A505-S6980CPU Fan
HP 535438-001CPU Fan
The official name of the municipality of Sonoyta is called General Plutarco Elías Calles in his honor. His starting of the PRN is criticized by many as the beginning of a long undemocratic period in Mexico. HP 532613-001CPU Fan
The origin of printer's devil is not definitively known. Various competing theories of the phrase's origin follow.
Printer's devil has been ascribed to parts of printer's apprentices' skin inevitably being stained black by the ink used in printing. As black was associated with the "black arts", the apprentice came to be called a devil. HP Pavilion dv7-3065dxCPU Fan
Another origin is linked to the fanciful belief among printers that a special devil (see the typographical personificationTitivillus) haunted every print shop, performing mischief such as inverting type, misspelling words or removing entire lines of completed type. The apprentice became a substitute source of blame and came to be called a printer's devil by association. HP Pavilion dv6-3163eoCPU Fan
A third source involves a business partner of Johann Gutenberg, Johann Fust, who sold several of Gutenberg's bibles to KingLouis XI of France and his court officials, representing the bibles as hand-copied manuscripts. ACER Aspire 5315 SeriesCPU Fan
When it was discovered that individual letters were identical in appearance, Fust was accused of witchcraft – the red ink text was said to have been written in blood, and Fust was imprisoned. Though Fust was later freed after the bibles' origins were revealed, many still believed he was in league with Satan, thus the phrase. Compaq Presario CQ42-173TU laptop keyboard
Another possible origin is ascribed to Aldus Manutius, a well-known Venetian printer of the Renaissance and founder of the Aldine Press, who was denounced by detractors for practicing the black arts (early printing was long associated with devilry). FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The assistant to Manutius was a young boy of African descent who was accused of being the embodiment of Satan and dubbed the printer's devil.
One likely source stems from the fact that worn and broken lead type is thrown into a hellbox, which the printer's devil must take to the furnace for melting and recasting. SONY VAIO VGN-FS790 laptop keyboard
Finally, English tradition links the origin of printer's devil to the assistant of the first English printer and book publisher, William Caxton. Caxton's assistant was named "Deville", which evolved to "devil" over time, GATEWAY M-6881 laptop keyboard
as that name was used to describe other printers' apprentices.
The President of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos)[2] is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces. The current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1, 2012. DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, in that the powers of office are derived from the Revolutionary Constitution of 1917. Another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, SONY VAIO VPC-F12 laptop keyboard
called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a caretaker basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the presidential systemof government. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5355 laptop keyboard
Presidential elections have been held every six years since 1934 (the constitution previously provided for a four-year mandate). However, until 1994, most elections were not considered to have met international standards of transparency and cleanliness. HP Pavilion dv6-2131ee laptop keyboard
The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a simple plurality of the national vote is elected; there is no runoff election. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36.38% of the votes in the2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (who contested the official results). SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50%. The current president, Enrique Peña Nieto won 38% of the popular vote.[3] HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
The History of Mexico has not been a peaceful one. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 because of the Mexican Revolution, there was no stable government until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, HP Pavilion dv6-2000CPU Fan
which later changed its name to the Party of the Mexican Revolution, and is now theInstitutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional). From then until 1988, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one-party state. ASUS F80SCPU Fan
Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as "the tap of the finger" (Spanish: el dedazo). Until 1988, the PRI's candidate was virtually assured of election, HP Pavilion dv7-3160emCPU Fan
winning by margins well over 70 percent of the vote—results that were usually obtained by massive electoral fraud. In 1988, however, the PRI ruptured and the dissidents formed the National Democratic Front with rival center-left parties (now the PRD). Toshiba MF60120V1-B100-G99CPU Fan
Discontent with the PRI, and the popularity of the Front's candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas led to worries that PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari would not come close to a majority, and might actually be defeated. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
While the votes were being counted, the tabulation system mysteriously shut down. The government declared Salinas the winner, leading to stronger than ever allegations of electoral fraud.[4] HP Pavilion dv6-2120ee laptop keyboard
The PRI enacted a strict internal discipline and government presence in the country, and electoral fraud became common. After the country regained its peace this pattern of fraud continued, with the opposition losing every election until the later part of the 20th century. TOSHIBA 9J.N9082.J01 laptop keyboard
The first presidential election broadly considered legitimate was the one held in 1994, when the PRI's Ernesto Zedillo took office, and in his term several reforms were enacted to ensure fairness and transparency in elections. DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
Partly as a consequence of these reforms, the 1997 federal congressional election saw the first opposition Chamber of Deputies ever, and the 2000 elections saw Vicente Fox of a PAN/PVEM alliance become the first opposition candidate to win an election since 1911. SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/W laptop keyboard
This historical defeat was accepted on election night by PRI in the voice of President Zedillo; while this calmed fears of violence, it also fueled questions about the role of the president in the electoral process and to whom the responsibility of conceding defeat should fall in a democratic election. SONY VAIO VGN-CR490 laptop keyboard
The role of unions in the new balance of power and future elections is documented in works like historian Enrique Krauze's Analysis of the Corporative System.
The 1917 Constitution borrowed heavily from the Constitution of the United States, providing for a clear separation of powers while giving the president wider powers than his American counterpart. However, this has only recently become the case in practice. HP Pavilion dv6-2163sl laptop keyboard
For the first 71 years after the enactment of the 1917 Constitution, the president exercised nearly absolute control over the country. Much of this power came from the de facto monopoly status of the PRI. As mentioned above, he effectively chose his successor as president by personally nominating the PRI's candidate in the next election. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
In addition, the unwritten rules of the PRI allowed him to designate party officials and candidates all the way down to the local level. He thus had an important (but not exclusive) influence over the political life of the country (part of his power had to be shared with unions and other groups, Packard Bell Easynote LM94 laptop keyboard
but as an individual he had no peers). This, and his constitutional powers, made some political commentators describe the president as a six-year dictator, and to call this system an "imperial presidency". HP Pavilion dv5-1125nr laptop keyboard
The situation remained largely unchanged until the early 1980s, when a grave economic crisis created discomfort both in the population and inside the party, and the president's power was no longer absolute but still impressive. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
An important characteristic of this system is that the new president was effectively chosen by the old one (since the PRI candidate was assured of election) but once he assumed power, the old one lost all power and influence ("no reelection" is a cornerstone of Mexican politics). ACER V104730BS1 laptop keyboard
In fact, tradition called for the incumbent president to fade into the background during the campaign to elect his successor. This renewed command helped maintain party discipline and avoided the stagnation associated with a single man holding power for decades, DELL Vostro 3700 laptop keyboard
prompting Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa to call Mexico's political system "the perfect dictatorship", since the president's powers were cloaked by democratic practice.
With the democratic reforms of recent years and fairer elections, the president's powers have been limited in fact as well as in name. Vargas Llosa, during the Fox administrationHP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
called this new system "The Imperfect Democracy". His current powers and rights include the following:
A decree is a legislative instrument that has an expiration date and that is issued by one of the three branches of government. Congress may issue decrees, ACER PK13ZYU0900 Laptop Keyboard
and the President may issue decrees as well. However, they have all the power of laws, but cannot be changed except by the power that issued them. Decrees are very limited in their extent. One such decree is the federal budget, which is issued by congress. The president's office may suggest a budget, SAMSUNG R470 Laptop Keyboard
but at the end of the day, it is congress that decrees how to collect taxes and how to spend them. A Supreme Court ruling on Vicente Fox's veto of the 2004 budget suggests that the President may have the right to veto decrees from Congress. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
Since 1997, the Congress has been plural, usually with opposition parties having a majority. Major reforms (tax, energy) have to pass by Congress, and the ruling President usually found his efforts blocked: the PRI's Zedillo by opposing PAN/PRD congressmen, and later the PAN's Fox by the PRI and PRD. The PAN would push the reforms it denied to the PRI and viceversa. SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
This situation, novel in a country where Congress was +90% dominated by the president's party for most of the century, has led to a legal analysis of the president's power. Formerly almost a dictator (because of PRI's party discipline), the current times show the president's power as somewhat limited. In 2004, TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard
President Fox threatened to veto the budget approved by Congress, claiming the budget overstepped his authority to lead the country, only to learn no branch of government had the power to veto a decree issued by another branch of government (although a different, nonjurisprudence-setting ruling stated he could return the budget with observations). SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
The Mexican Presidential sash has the colors of the Mexican flag in three bands of equal width, with red on top, white in the center, and green on the bottom, worn from right shoulder to left waist; HP G42-372LA Laptop Keyboard
it also includes the National Seal, in gold thread, to be worn chest-high. During the swearing-in ceremony of a newly elected President, the outgoing President turns in the sash to the current President of Congress, ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
who in turn gives it to the new President after the latter has sworn the oath of office. The sash is the symbol of the Executive Federal Power, and can only be worn by the President.
According to Article 35 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
the President must wear the sash at the swearing-in ceremony, when he makes his annual State of the Union report to Congress, during the commemoration of the Grito de Dolores on September 15 of each year, and when he receives the diplomatic credentials of accredited foreign ambassadors and ministers. Compaq Presario CQ42-173TU Laptop Keyboard
He is also expected to wear it "in those official ceremonies of greatest solemnity." The sash is worn from right shoulder to left hip, and should be worn underneath the coat except during the swearing-in ceremony, when both the out-going and incoming president wear it over their coat (Article 36). Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
In addition to the Presidential Sash, each president receives a Presidential Flag; this flag includes the words Estados Unidos Mexicanos in golden letters and the national coat of arms also in gold.
Former presidents of Mexico continue to carry the title "President" until death but are rarely referred by it; Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
they are commonly called ex-Presidents. They are also given protection by the Estado Mayor Presidencial. Former presidents are also given a lifelong pension, which they can refuse, as in case of Ernesto Zedillo. ACER 9Z.N3K82.01D laptop keyboard
Contrary to what happens in many other countries, former presidents of Mexico do not continue to be important national figures once out of office, and usually lead a discreet life. This is partly because they do not want to interfere with the government of the new president and partly because they may not have a good public image. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
This tradition can be traced back to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas. Former president Plutarco Elías Calles had personally selected Cárdenas as his successor, and had hoped to control things from behind the scenes as he had for the last five years. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
However, when Cárdenas showed he was going to rule in fact as well as in name, Calles publicly criticized him, prompting Cárdenas to have Calles escorted out of the country by military police. Cárdenas himself remained silent on the policies of his successor Manuel Ávila Camacho, establishing a tradition that former presidents do not interfere with their successors. SAMSUNG R50 Laptop Keyboard
For example, Ernesto Zedillo holds important offices in the United Nations and in the private sector, but outside of Mexico. It is speculated he lives in a self-imposed exile to avoid the hatred of some of his fellow members of the PRI for having acknowledged the PRI's defeat in the 2000 presidential election. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Carlos Salinas also lived in a self-imposed exile in Ireland, but returned to Mexico. He campaigned intensely to have his brother, Raúl Salinas, freed after he was jailed in the early days of Zedillo's term, accused of drug trafficking and planning the assassination of José Francisco Ruiz Massieu. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5246 Laptop Keyboard
Carlos Salinas also wrote a book on neo-liberal Mexico, secured a position with the Dow Jones Company in the United States, and worked as a professor at several prestigious universities in that country. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Two other surviving former presidents, Luis Echeverría and Vicente Fox, still live in Mexico. On June 30, 2006, Echeverría was placed under house arrest under charges of genocide for his role as Secretary of the Interior during the 1968 Tlatelolco Massacre.[6] The house arrest was lifted in 2009. HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
A bodyguard (or close protection officer)[1] is a type of security operative or government agent who protects a person or persons — usually a public, wealthy, or politically important figure(s) — from danger: generally theft,assault, kidnapping, homicide, harassment, loss of confidential information, threats, or other criminal offences. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Most important public figures such as heads of state, heads of government and governors are protected by several bodyguards or by a team of bodyguards from an agency, security forces, or police forces (e.g., in the U.S., the United States Secret Service or the State Department's Diplomatic Security Service). HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
In most countries where the Head of state is and have always been also their military leader, the leader's bodyguards have traditionally been Royal Guards,Republican Guards and other elite military units. ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard
Less-important public figures, or those with lower risk profiles, may be accompanied by a single bodyguard who doubles as a driver. A number of high-profile celebrities and CEOs also use bodyguards. DELL Studio 1749 Laptop Keyboard
The role of a bodyguard depends on several factors. First, it depends on the role of a given bodyguard in a close protection team. A bodyguard can be a driver-bodyguard, a close-protection officer (who escorts the client), or part of an ancillary unit that provides support such as IED detection, TOSHIBA 9J.N9082.J01 Laptop Keyboard
electronic "bug" detection, counter-sniper monitoring, pre-searches facilities, and background-checks people who will have contact with the client. Second, the role of a bodyguard depends on the level of risk that the client faces. HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard
A bodyguard protecting a client at high risk ofassassination will be focusing on very different roles (e.g., checking cars for IED devices, bombs, watching for potential shooters, etc.) than a bodyguard escorting a celebrity who is being stalked by aggressive tabloid photographers (e.g., HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
the role will be to ask the photographers to maintain their distance and block the path of aggressive cameramen). Some bodyguards specialize in the close quarter protection of children of VIPs, to protect them from kidnapping or assassination, a role which is nicknamed "mannyguarding" (a pun on the word "nanny").[3] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
In some cases, bodyguards also drive their clients. Normally, it is not sufficient for a client to be protected by a single driver-bodyguard, because this would mean that the bodyguard would have to leave the car unattended when they escort the client on foot. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
If the car is left unattended, this can lead to several risks: an explosive device may be attached to the car; an electronic "bug" may be attached to the car; the car may be sabotaged; or city parking officials may simply tow away the vehicle or place a wheel lock on the tire. TOSHIBA Satellite 1800-412 laptop keyboard
If parking services tow away or disable the car, then the bodyguard cannot use the car to escape with the client in case there is a security threat while the client is at his or her meeting.
The driver should be trained in evasive driving techniques, such as executing short-radius turns to change the direction of the vehicle, high-speed cornering, and so on. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The car used by the client will typically be a large sedan with a low center of gravity and a powerful engine, such as a BMW or Mercedes Benz. At a minimum, the vehicle should have ballistic glass, some type of armor reinforcement to protect the client from gunfire, and a foam-filled gas tank. "Run-flat" tires and armor protection for the driver are also desirable. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ52B laptop keyboard
The car may also be equipped with an additional battery; dual footpedal controls, such as those used by driving instruction companies (in case the driver is wounded or incapacitated), a PA system with a microphone and a megaphone mounted on the outside of the car, HP Pavilion dv6-3160so laptop keyboard
so that the driver can give commands to other convoy vehicles or bodyguards who are on foot; fire extinguishers inside the vehicle in case the vehicle is struck by a Molotov cocktail bomb or other weapon; a reinforced front and rear bumper, to enable the driver to ram attacking vehicles; and additional mirrors, DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
to give the driver a better field of view. In Latin American countries many armored cars will come with a siren and lights to use in situations were they need to get out of places quickly. Decoy convoys and vehicles are used to prevent tailing. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
In the event the convoy holding the client is compromised and ambushed, decoy convoys can also act as a reinforcement force that can ambush a force that is attacking the primary convoy. Some clients rotate between residences in different cities when attending public events or meetings to prevent being tailed home or to a private location. SONY VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q laptop keyboard
In addition to these weapons, a bodyguard team may also have more specialist weapons to aid them in maintaining the safety of their principal, such as sniper rifles and anti-material rifles (for anti-sniper protection) or shotguns (either loaded with buckshot as an anti-personnel weapon or with solid slugs as an anti-vehicle weapon). SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
Bodyguards that protect high-risk principals may wear body armor such as kevlar or ceramic vests. The bodyguards may also have other ballistic shields, such as kevlar-reinforced briefcases or clipboards which, while appearing innocuous, can be used to protect the principal. The principal may also wear body armor in high-risk situations. ACER TravelMate 3012 laptop keyboard
For a close protection officer, the primary tactic against sniper attacks is defensive: avoid exposing the principal to the risk of being fired upon. This means that the principal should ideally be within an armored vehicle or a secure structure. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
As well, when the principal moves between a vehicle and a building, the principal must be moved quickly to minimize the time window in which a sniper could take a shot and use a flanking escort of close protection officers to block the view of the sniper and any potential shot that the sniper may take. ACER Aspire 5625G laptop keyboard
The use of offensive tactics against snipers will occur very rarely in a bodyguard context. Some planning for the day would have begun on previous days. Once the itinerary is known, one or more bodyguards would travel the route to the venues, to check the roads for unexpected changes (road work, detours, closed lanes) Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
and to check the venue. The venue needs to be checked for bugs and the security of the facility (exits, entrances) needs to be inspected. As well, the bodyguards will want to know the names of the staff who will have contact with the client, so that a simple electronicbackground check can be run on these individuals. Bodyguards often have training in firearms tactics, unarmed combat, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
tactical driving, and first aid. In multi-agent units (like those protecting a head of state) one or more bodyguards may have training in specific tasks, such as providing a protective escort, crowd screening and control, or searching for explosives orelectronic surveillance devices ("bugs"). IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Bodyguards also learn how to work with other security personnel to conduct threat or risk assessment and analyze potential security weaknesses. Bodyguards learn how to examine a premises or venue before their clients arrive, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
to determine where the exits and entrances are, find potential security weaknesses, and meet the staff (so that a would-be attacker cannot pose as a staff member). As well, some bodyguards learn how to do research to be aware of potential threats to their client, HP Pavilion dv6-3108tu laptop keyboard
by doing a thorough assessment of the threats facing the principal, such as a protest by a radical group or the release from custody of person who is a known threat. Close protection officers also learn how to escort a client in potentially threatening situations. SONY VAIO VGN-N160G/W laptop keyboard
The militaries in many countries offer close protection training for the members of their own armed forces who have been selected to work as bodyguards to officers or heads of state (e.g., the British SAS). As well, HP Pavilion DV7-3164cl laptop keyboard
there are a number of private bodyguard training programs, which offer training in all aspects of close protection and including the legal aspects of bodyguarding (e.g., use of force, use of deadly force); how to escort clients; driving; searching facilities and vehicles, and so on. HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
When the convoy arrives at the location, one or more bodyguards will exit first to confirm that the location is secure and that the staff who were booked to work that day are the ones who are present. If the location is secure, these bodyguards signal that it is safe to bring in the client. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R52-1860 laptop keyboard
The client is escorted into the building using a flanking procedure. If the client is attending a private meeting inside the building, and the building itself is secure (controlled entrances) the client will not need to have a bodyguard escort in the building. COMPAQ Presario CQ40 laptop keyboard
The bodyguards can then pull back to monitor his or her safety from a further distance. Bodyguards could monitor entrances and exits and the driver-bodyguard watches the cars.
If the client is moving about in a fairly controlled environment such as a private golf course, HP 640892-001 laptop keyboard
which has limited entrances and exits, the security detail may drop down to one or two bodyguards, with the other bodyguards monitoring the entrances to the facility, the cars, and remaining in contact with the bodyguards escorting the client. DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
Throughout the day, as the client goes about his activities, the number of bodyguards escorting the client will increase or decrease according to the level of risk. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
After the day's activities, the client will be brought back to the secure residence location. Exiting from the vehicle and walking to the door exposes the client to risk, so the distance is kept as short as possible to cut down the time it takes to reach the door. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
Once the client is inside, the bodyguards assigned to the overnight detail will take up their positions outside or inside the residence. The vehicles are then parked in a locked garage (to prevent tampering, sabotage, or IED placement). ACER Aspire 3810T-H22F laptop keyboard
Some team members may spend additional time doing maintenance on the equipment used by the team. The TL (team leader) will ensure that all equipment is checked and packed away for the next day and ensure the radios are being charged for the next day's operation. HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa laptop keyboard
Bodyguards often have backgrounds in the armed forces, police or security services, although this is not required. The exception to this is in the case of bodyguards protecting heads of state; in some countries, HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard
these bodyguards must be trained in military bodyguard training programs. Military experience in foot patrol and convoysescort through urban areas in conflict or war as in Afghanistan, Iraq, West Bank,Northern Ireland, Beirut, Basque country, Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
Soweto and other areas under non conventional enemy stress around civilians is highly considered and difficult to match with any training time though, usually those experienced do not always seek these careers or further exposure in less stressful circumstances but familiar environments. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Bodyguards must be physically fit, with good eyesight and hearing, and they need to have a presentable appearance, especially for close protection work for dignitaries and heads of state. A drivers license is usually required, IBM Lenovo IdeaPad G510 Series CPU Fan
so that the bodyguard can double as a driver. In the United Kingdom and some other countries, bodyguards have to have a license or certification with the SIA, which involves identity and criminal record checks. To be a bodyguard in an agency protecting a head of state, a bodyguard will have to undergo extensive background and loyalty checks. HP Pavilion dv5-1198er CPU Fan
Bodyguards need to be observant, and retain their focus on their job, despite distractions such as fatigue. As well, they need to be able to work as member of a team, with assigned tasks, or be able to act independently, HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
and adapt and improvise an appropriate response if the need arises. Bodyguards need to be able to recognize potentially dangerous situations and remain calm under pressure. A bodyguard has to have a strong dedication to their protective role. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Since bodyguards often have to collaborate or coordinate their protection with other security forces, such as local police other private security guards, bodyguards need good interpersonal and communications skills. SONY Vaio VGN-CR42S/B CPU Fan
Since bodyguards accompany their client throughout their day, the bodyguard will be privy to the private life of the client, which means that a bodyguard has to show discretion and maintain confidentiality. HP 580696-001 CPU Fan
Bodyguards often have training in firearms tactics, unarmed combat, tactical driving, and first aid. In multi-agent units (like those protecting a head of state) one or more bodyguards may have training in specific tasks, HP 610774-001 CPU Fan
such as providing a protective escort, crowd screening and control, or searching for explosives or electronic surveillance devices ("bugs"). Bodyguards also learn how to work with other security personnel to conduct threat or risk assessment and analyze potential security weaknesses. HP Pavilion dv7-4191eb CPU Fan
Bodyguards learn how to examine a premises or venue before their clients arrive, to determine where the exits and entrances are, find potential security weaknesses, and meet the staff (so that a would-be attacker cannot pose as a staff member). HP Pavilion dv6-2180ey CPU Fan
As well, some bodyguards learn how to do research to be aware of potential threats to their client, by doing a thorough assessment of the threats facing the principal,[5] such as a protest by a radical group or the release from custody of person who is a known threat. Close protection officers also learn how to escort a client in potentially threatening situations. HP Envy 17-2077ez CPU Fan
The militaries in many countries offer close protection training for the members of their own armed forces who have been selected to work as bodyguards to officers or heads of state (e.g., the British SAS). As well, HP Pavilion dv6-3085tx laptop keyboard
there are a number of private bodyguard training programs, which offer training in all aspects of close protection and including the legal aspects of bodyguarding (e.g., use of force, use of deadly force); how to escort clients; driving; searching facilities and vehicles, and so on. HP Mini 110-3014tu laptop keyboard
Within the UK, the industry is regulated via the Security Industry Authority and requires an individual to obtain a level 3 vocational training qualification in addition to a first aid certificate prior to a license being issued. Most UK firms will also request this even if operations are outside of the UK. HP Pavilion dv6-3046eo laptop keyboard
In countries where the head of state is a military leader or dictator, the leader's bodyguards may also be part of an elitemilitary unit. Such was the case with the Somatophylakes in Macedon, Schutzstaffel in Nazi Germany, the former Iraqi Special Republican Guard, or the Praetorian Guard in the Roman Empire, Varangians of the Byzantine Empire, or the Housecarls of the English Monarchs. SONY VAIO VGN-CS230J/Q laptop keyboard
The British monarch has at least three traditional bodyguard corps in service, known collectively as the Sovereign's Bodyguard.
In India, VIPs are protected by National Security Guards (NSG), an organization under the Ministry of Home Affairs. ACER MP-04653U4-442 laptop keyboard
The protection of the Prime Minister and some other important persons is entrusted with the Special Protection Group (SPG). SPG was formed as a specialized unit in the protection of Prime Minister and his family members, Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
after the assassination of the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, in 1984. Former Prime Ministers also get the protection of SPG for a period of 5 years, after stepping down from the post. The President of India is also protected by SPG while the President's Bodyguards, FUJITSU LifeBook A6110 CPU Fan
which is a mechanized regiment of Indian Army, has now a largely ceremonial role. Persons with lower threat level are given security cover by Delhi police in the Capitol and respective state police forces elsewhere. APPLE MacBook Pro 17 inch A1151 CPU Fan
In Pakistan, the President and Prime Minister receive close protection teams from the military's elite Special Service Group unit. President Pervez Musharraf, as civilian head of state, was due to have this withdrawn after retiring as Chief of Army Staff, but the Pakistan Army has retained his close protection unit. HP 606013-001 CPU Fan
In Turkey, there are two main services, tasked with close protection. The Prime Minister of Turkey is protected by the Karşı Saldırı Timi'nde (KST), an elite counterattack team, a subunit of the Office for Protection of the Prime Minister (Başbakanlık Koruma Dairesi Başkanlığı). HP Pavilion dv5-2035dx CPU Fan
The Office for Protection of the PM is itself a service of the General Directorate of Security (Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü), the civil police force of Turkey. The President is closely protected by the Cumhurbaskanligi Muhafiz Alayi, HP 441137-001 CPU Fan
the 2 500-strong Presidential Guard Regiment of the Turkish Army, subordinated to the 4th Army Corps. It consists of specially selected personnel and is charged with the duty of protecting the President (and members of his family), HP 657529-001 CPU Fan
security of the Presidential palaces and also the manning of the Turkish President's mode of transport (e.g. pilots for TC-ANA, the presidential plane etc.).
The brave and fiercely protective bodyguard who is willing to die to protect his master has long been depicted in fiction. Toshiba Satellite L550-00P CPU Fan
The character of the Scottish hero Quentin Durward appears in stories as the bodyguard of the King of France. The character Charles d'Artagnan appears in stories as the bodyguard of the French Crown. HP 3MLX8TATP20 CPU Fan
The characterAtticus Kodiak is a professional bodyguard who acts as narrator and protagonist in a series of novels by Greg Rucka. Bodyguards also appear in Usagi Yojimbo, Stan Sakai's anthropomorphic-rabbit samurai based upon Miyamoto Musashi and in theArtemis Fowl series of children's books. SONY Vaio VPC-EE4E1E/WI CPU Fan
Bodyguards are also depicted in a number of films. Japanese director Akira Kurosawa's film Yojimbo depicts a samurai bodyguard in Japan. The Bodyguard is a film about a bodyguard who protects a celebrity singer. Compaq Presario CQ60-419wm CPU Fan
Gogo Yubari is O-Ren Ishii's bodyguard in the film Kill Bill 1. In the science-fiction/fantasy Star Wars films, MagnaGuard is General Grievous's bodyguard, duties performed on special occasions by the Jedi Knights. In the film Lord of War, the main character's brother protects him while he makes arms deals in war-torn countries. HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo CPU Fan
In the film Shanghai Noon martial arts and cinema star Jackie Chan plays the role of an Imperial Guard of China on a mission to America to help rescue a princess.
In the film Man on Fire, John Creasy (Denzel Washington) is a burnt-out ex-CIA officer and counter-insurgency operative who grudgingly becomes the bodyguard of a young girl (played by Dakota Fanning). When kidnappers attempt to snatch the girl, HP X16-1000 Series CPU Fan
Creasy is severely wounded in a gun battle. The film depicts his perseverance in attempting to continue to protect the girl despite his gunshot wounds, until he becomes unconscious.
Several films have been made about the Secret Service's role in guarding the President of the U.S., such as In the Line of Fire and The Sentinel. HP Pavilion dv6-3109ca CPU Fan
Bodyguards are also depicted in television shows, comics, and other media. Bodyguard is a Japanese television series starring Reiko Takashima. In the UK,Bodyguards was a late 1990s British television series about a specialized Close Protection Group that protected members of the UK government. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
In the Mortal Kombat fighting game series, Sheeva is the personal protector of Sindel. Suki is a Japanese manga about a relationship between a teenage girl and a 32-year-old bodyguard.
HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
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Lázaro Cárdenas was born on May 21, 1895 in a lower-middle-class family in the village of Jiquilpan, Michoacán. He supported his family (including his mother and seven younger siblings) from age 16 after the death of his father. IBM ThinkPad T40 2669 laptop keyboard
By the age of 18 he had worked as a tax collector, a printer's devil, and a jailkeeper. Although he left school at the age of eleven, he used every opportunity to educate himself and read widely throughout his life, especially works of history. HP Mini 210-2170nr laptop keyboard
Cárdenas set his sights on becoming a teacher, but was drawn into politics and the military during the Mexican Revolution after Victoriano Huerta overthrew PresidentFrancisco Madero. He backed Plutarco Elías Calles, and after Calles became president, Cárdenas became governor of Michoacán in 1928. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
During his four years as governor, Cárdenas initiated a modest re-distribution of land at the state level, encouraged the growth of peasant and labour organizations, and made improvements to education at a time when it was neglected by the federal government. Cárdenas ensured that teachers were paid on time, TOSHIBA Satellite L45-S7409 laptop keyboard
made personal inspections of many classrooms, and opened a hundred new rural schools. His grassroots style of governing was such that during his time as governor, Cárdenas made important policy decisions based on direct information received from the public rather than on the advice of his confidants.[1] GATEWAY M-6846 laptop keyboard
Calles continued to dominate Mexico after his presidency with administrations that were his puppets. After having two of his hand-picked men put into the position, the PNR balked at his first choice, Manuel Pérez Treviño, Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
in 1932. Instead they selected Cárdenas to be the ruling party's presidential candidate, and Calles went along with it, thinking he could control him as he had the previous two. This however, was not so. Cárdenas' first move once he took office late in 1934 was to have his presidential salary cut in half. Even more surprising moves would follow. After establishing himself in the presidency, SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
Cárdenas and the Mexican Congress turned on Calles and condemned his continued war-like persecution of the Catholic Church.[2] In 1936, Cárdenas had Calles and twenty of his corrupt associates arrested and deported to the United States,[3] a decision that was greeted with great enthusiasm by the majority of the Mexican public. During the course of his presidency, SONY Vaio PCG-K415B laptop keyboard
Cárdenas became known for his progressive program of building roads and schools and promoting education, with twice as much federal money allocated to rural education as all his predecessors combined.[1] SONY VAIO VPCF121FX laptop keyboard
He also promoted land reform and social security during his time in office. Regarded as a great social reformer, Cardenas’ agrarian land reforms and extensive building programme of country schools helped better the lot of the rural poor.[4] FUJITSU Lifebook T4210 laptop keyboard
During his time in office, Cárdenas openly sought the National Revolutionary Party's six-year plan of social and political reform.[3] The plan called for 1)restoration of the system of ejidos (common lands) through a strong agrarian program to combat the domination of the large haciendas; 2) HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
modern secular schools that would teach rationalist doctrines and combat the "fanaticism" of the Church; and 3) workers' cooperatives to oppose the excesses of industrial capitalism.[3] Cárdenas subsequently decreed the end of the use of capital punishment (in Mexico, usually in the form of a firing squad). SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard
Capital punishment has been banned in Mexico since that time. The control of the republic by Cárdenas and the PRI (Partido Revolucionario Institucional) predecessor Partido de la Revolución Mexicana without widespread bloodshed effectively signalled the end of rebellions that began with the 1910 Mexican Revolution. Despite the fact that Cárdenas enforced a policy of socialist education, relations with the Church also improved greatly during his time in office.[5] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
Cárdenas was perhaps the only Mexican President who never employed armored cars or bodyguards to protect himself. In the presidential campaign of 1934, he travelled through much of the republic that was not accessible by train, by auto and horseback, accompanied only by Rafael M Pedrajo by a chauffeur and an aide-de-camp. HP Pavilion dv3-2175ee laptop keyboard
This fearlessness generated widespread respect for Cárdenas by the electorate. He became the first occupant of the current official presidential residence of Los Pinos, and converted the previous residence, the ostentatious Chapultepec Castle, into the National Museum of History. HP Pavilion dv5-1015tx laptop keyboard
Russian exile Leon Trotsky was welcomed into Mexico by Cárdenas, reportedly to counter accusations that Cárdenas was a Stalinist. Cárdenas, like his 1920s predecessor Álvaro Obregón, understood that left wing and labor union support was critical to maintain control of the republic. The bloated and corrupt CROMunion ofHP Pavilion dv6-3046eo laptop keyboard
Luis Morones was marginalized as Cárdenas promoted the "purified" Confederation of Mexican Workers of socialist Vicente Lombardo Toledano. The CTM and Toledano in turn supported Cárdenas' deportation of ex-President Calles. Cárdenas was not as left-wing as Leon Trotsky and other socialists would wish, but still Trotsky described Cárdenas' government as the only honest government in the world. Dell Vostro 3450 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas sought to actively help the Republican government in the Spanish Civil War, but those efforts were largely thwarted by the administration of US President FDR Roosevelt. After the war ended with the defeat of the loyalist Republicans, Toshiba Satellite A55-S1064 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas gave specific instructions to his ambassador and envoys in Europe to give safe haven and protection to all exiles, including Republican President Manuel Azaña, actively sought for deportation by the victorious Nationalists and by the Vichy French. Dell Latitude E6510 Laptop CPU Fan
Azaña died in France under Mexican diplomatic protection, but Cárdenas was able to bring to Mexico tens of thousands of refugees, among them distinguished intellectuals who left a lasting imprint in Mexican cultural life. Toshiba Satellite M70-226 Laptop CPU Fan
Not only intellectuals were granted asylum in Mexico: from the 4,559 passengers who arrive to Mexico in 1939 on board the ships Sinaia, Ipanema and Mexique, for example, the largest groups were formed by technicians and qualified workers (32%), farmers and ranchers (20%), along with professionals, technicians, workers, business people students and merchants – this last group representing 43% of the total.[6] HP 535439-001 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas is considered by many historians to be the creator of a political system that lasted in Mexico until the end of the 1980s. Central to this project was the organization of corporatist structures for trade unions, campesino (peasant) organizations, ACER Aspire 3810T laptop keyboard
and middle-class professionals and office workers within the reorganized ruling party, now renamed the Party of the Mexican Revolution (PRM). During Cárdenas' presidency, the government enacted a great deal of the land reform that Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata had envisioned, and redistributed 45 million acres (180,000 km2) of hacienda land to peasants.[7] HP G62-110EE laptop keyboard
Additionally, urban and industrial workers gained unprecedented unionization rights and wage increases. The railway Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México was nationalized in 1938 and put under a "workers' administration." However, SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21E laptop keyboard
Cárdenas and subsequent presidents also used the PRM and its successor, the Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI, to maintain political control; leaders of the worker and campesino organizations delivered votes and suppressed protests in exchange for personal favors and concessions to their constituencies. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 laptop keyboard
At first, the oil nationalization policy earned Cárdenas great respect among Mexicans and in many other Latin America countries.[5] IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard
In later years, however, Cárdenas' oil policy proved to be unpopular.[8] Vincente Lombardo Toledano took advantage of Cárdenas' unpopularity and organized pro-Communist militias.[8] This move by Lombardo would lead to the rise of right-wing militias lead by General Juan Andreu as well.[9] HP 7F0844 laptop keyboard
In the elections of 1940, Cárdenas, in a surprise move with hopes of preventing another uprising in the country, endorsed the PRM nominee Manuel Ávila Camacho,[9] a moderate conservative.[10] Cárdnas hoped Ávila would salvage some of his liberal policies[9] and form a compromise candidate compared to his conservative opponent, Juan Andreu. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Open and free campaigning was anticipated. The elections, however, did not follow the pattern Cárdenas wished. The campaign was peppered with violent incidents, and on election day the opposing parties hijacked numerous polling places and each issued their own "election results." After "official" results declared Ávila as winner, Andreu threatened revolt and then attempted to set up a parallel government and congress. Nevertheless, GATEWAY P-6301 laptop keyboard
Ávila crushed Andreu's forces[8] and assumed office.[8] His inauguration was attended by US Vice President-elect Henry A. Wallace,[8] who was appointed by the US as a "special representative with the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary" for Mexico.[8] SONY VAIO VGN-N270E/T laptop keyboard
Also central to Cárdenas' project were nationalistic economic policies involving Mexico's vast oil production, which had soared following strikes in 1910 in the area known as the "Golden Lane", near Tampico, and which made Mexico the world's second-largest oil producer by 1921, supplying approximately 20 percent of domestic demand in the United States. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
Cárdenas' efforts to negotiate with Mexican Eagle, in the managerial control of Royal Dutch/Shell and Standard Oil of New Jersey, were unavailing, and the companies rejected a solution proposed by a presidential commission. Dell 5HN30 Laptop CPU Fan
So at 9:45 pm on the evening of March 18, 1938, Cárdenas nationalized Mexico's petroleum reserves and expropriated the equipment of the foreign oil companies in Mexico. The announcement inspired a spontaneous six-hour parade in Mexico City; it was followed by a national fund-raising campaign to compensate the companies. HP Pavilion dv6135nr Laptop CPU Fan
Even though compensation for the expropriated assets was included in this legislation, the act angered the international business community and vexed Western governments, especially the United Kingdom. HP Pavilion dv7-6b55dx Laptop CPU Fan
The government was more worried about the lack of the technical knowledge required to run the refineries. Before leaving, the oil companies had made sure they did not leave behind anything of value to the Mexican government, Dell Latitude E6510 Laptop CPU Fan
hoping to force Cárdenas to accept their conditions. Although Mexico was eventually able to restart the oil fields and refineries, production did not rise to pre-takeover levels until after the entry of the United States into World War II, when technical advisers were sent by the United States as part of the overall Allied war effort. HP Pavilion dv6-3077ca Laptop CPU Fan
The British severed diplomatic relations with Cárdenas' government, and Mexican oil and other goods were boycotted, despite an international ruling in favor of Mexico's government. However, with the outbreak of World War II, oil became a highly sought-after commodity. [11] HP Pavilion dv7-4087cl Laptop CPU Fan
The company that Cárdenas founded, Petróleos Mexicanos (or Pemex), would later be a model for other nations seeking greater control over their own oil and natural gas resources and, 70 years later, Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX Laptop CPU Fan
it remains the most important source of income for the country, despite weakening finances. Seeing the need to assure the technical expertise needed to run it, Cárdenas founded the National Polytechnic Institute. HP GC055515VH-A Laptop CPU Fan
After his presidential term, Cárdenas served as Mexico's secretary of defense until 1945.
It is often said that Lázaro Cárdenas was the only president associated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who did not use the office to make himself wealthy. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Fan
He retired to a modest home by Lake Pátzcuaro and worked the rest of his life supervising irrigation projects and promoting free medical clinics and education for the nation's poor. He also continued to speak out about international political issues and in favor of greater democracy and human rights in Latin America and elsewhere. SONY Vaio VGN-BX41XN Laptop CPU Fan
For example, he was one of the participants in the Russell Tribunal for investigating war crimes in Vietnam.
Lázaro Cárdenas died of cancer in Mexico City on October 19, 1970 at the age of 75. His son Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and his grandson Lázaro Cárdenas Batel have been prominent Mexican politicians. HP Pavilion dv9570ef Laptop CPU Fan
In his honor, his name was given to a number of cities, towns, and a municipality in Mexico, including Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán, the municipality of Lázaro Cárdenas, Quintana Roo, Lázaro Cárdenas, Jalisco, and other smaller communities. Dell Vostro 3350 Laptop CPU Fan
There are also many streets that have been named after him, including the Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas in Mexico City and highways in Guadalajara, Monterrey and Mexicali. Šetalište Lazaro Kardenasa (Lázaro Cárdenas promenade) in Belgrade,Serbia, Toshiba Satellite L500-208 Laptop CPU Fan
is also named after him, as is a street in Barcelona, Spain, and a monument in a park in Madrid dedicated to his memory for his role in admitting defeated Spanish Republicans to Mexico after the Civil War in that country. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Fan
In 1955 Lázaro Cárdenas was awarded the Stalin Peace Prize, which was later renamed for Lenin as part of de-Stalinization.
President Cárdenas and his administration are given credit by socialists for expanding the distribution of land to the peasants, COMPAQ Presario CQ42-116TU Laptop CPU Fan
establishing new welfare programs for the poor, and nationalizing the railroad and petroleum industries, including the oil company that Cárdenas founded, Petróleos Mexicanos. Toward the end of his presidency, unhappy landowners and foreign capitalists began to challenge his programs and his power. Dell Latitude E6510 Laptop CPU Fan
Cárdenas' party, the PRI, continued in power until 2000. This is attributed by some to electoral fraud and coercion. This legacy led his son, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, to form the Democratic Revolution Party (PRD) to contest the 1988 presidential election. Since that year, HP Pavilion dv6121eu Laptop CPU Fan
the PRD has become one of the three major parties in Mexico, gaining working class support that was previously enjoyed by the PRI.
In his Political Testament, written the year before his death and published posthumously, he acknowledged that his regime had failed to make the changes in distribution of political power and corruption that were the basis for his presidency and the revolution. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
He expressed his dismay in the fact that some people and groups were making themselves rich to the detriment of the mainly poor majority. It was said about Cárdenas at his eulogy that, "he was the greatest figure produced by the revolution… an authentic revolutionary who aspired to the greatness of his country, not personal aggrandizement." ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard
Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay patterned his people–oriented government on the principles which he found a biography of Cárdenas written by William Cameron Townsend.
Plutarco Elías Calles (Spanish pronunciation: [pluˈtarko eˈli.as ˈkaʝes]; September 25, 1877 –HP Pavilion DV6-1027nr Laptop Keyboard
October 19, 1945) was a Mexican general and politician. He was the powerful interior minister under President Álvaro Obregón, who chose Calles as his successor. The 1924 Calles presidential campaign was the first populist presidential campaign in the nation's history, HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard
as he called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, more education, additional labor rights, and democratic governance.[3] Calles indeed tried to fulfill his promises during his populist phase (1924–26), Lenovo 0A62075 Laptop Keyboard
but entered a repressive and violent anti-Catholic phase (1926–28).
After leaving office he continued to be the dominant leader from 1928–1935, a period known as the maximato. ACER Aspire 5740 Laptop Keyboard
Calles is most noted for a fierce oppression of Catholics that led to the Cristero War, a civil war between Catholic rebels and government forces, and for founding the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (National Revolutionary Party, GATEWAY M-6846 Laptop Keyboard
or PNR), which became the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (Party of the Mexican Revolution, or PRM) which eventually became theInstitutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), that governed Mexico from 1929 to 2000 under these three different names. HP Pavilion dv6-3056ez Laptop Keyboard
Elías Calles grew up in poverty and deprivation, the son of an alcoholic who was not married to his mother. He adopted the Calles surname from the uncle who raised him after the death of his mother, Maria de Jesús Campuzano. This uncle was an ardent atheist and raised his nephew with a fanatical hatred of the Catholic Church.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
His father, also called Plutarco Elías, was descended from a prominent family in the Provincias Internas, most often recorded as Elías González. The first of this line to settle in Mexico was Francisco Elías González (1707–1790), HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
who emigrated from La Rioja, Spain, to Zacatecas, Mexico, in 1729. Eventually, he moved north to Chihuahua, where, as commander of the presidio of Terrenate, he played a role in the wars against the Yaqui and Apache. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
The younger Plutarco worked many different jobs, from bartender to schoolteacher, and always had a keen sense of political opportunity.[5] He was a supporter ofFrancisco I. Madero, under whom he became a police commissioner, HP Probook 4710S Laptop Keyboard
and his ability to align himself with the political winners of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) allowed him to move up the ranks quickly; he attained the rank of general in 1915. He led the Constitutional Army in his home state of Sonora and managed to repel the conventionalists of José María Maytorena and Pancho Villa in the Battle of Agua Prieta in 1915.[6] TOSHIBA Portege S100-s213 Laptop Keyboard
In 1915, Elías Calles became governor of Sonora, known as one of the most reformist politicians of his generation. His radical rhetoric tended to conceal the pragmatic essence of his policy, which was to promote the rapid growth of the Mexican national economy, whose infrastructure he helped to establish. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Fan
In particular, he attempted to make Sonora a dry state,[6] promoted legislation giving social security and collective bargaining to workers, and expelled all Catholic priests. In 1919, Venustiano Carranza promoted Calles to Secretary of Commerce, Industry and Labor. In 1920 he aligned himself with Álvaro Obregón to overthrow Carranza, HP Pavilion dv6-2005sl Laptop CPU Fan
and Obregón named him head of the interior ministry.[6] Calles used his ability to draw in labor class votes to come to power with Obregón. He aligned himself with the Laborist Party and was in 1924 elected president, defeating the agrarianist candidate Ángel Flores and the eccentric perennial candidate Nicolás Zúñiga y Miranda. HP Mini 1001TU Laptop Keyboard
Calles' presidency was supported by labor and peasant unions. The Laborist party which supported his government in reality functioned as the political-electoral branch of the powerful Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers(CROM), Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
led by Luis Napoleón Morones. Shortly before his inauguration he had travelled to Europe to study social democracy and the labor movement, and he tried to implement the things he had learned there in Mexico. HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
Calles supported land reforms and promoted the ejido as a way to emancipate campesinos, but no large tracts of land were redistributed under his presidency nonetheless. Calles founded several banks in support of campesinos as well as the Banco de México, TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G Laptop Keyboard
Mexico's national bank. Calles's finance secretary Alberto J. Pani managed to achieve debt relief of a part of Mexico's foreign debt, but after a conflict with Calles, Pani resigned in 1927. Calles also appointed men such as Jose Vasconcelos and Moises Saenz to reform Mexico's education system. SONY VGN-FE670G Laptop Keyboard
Calles changed Mexico's civil code to give illegitimate children the same rights as legitimate, partly as a reaction against the problems he himself often had encountered being a child of unmarried parents. ACER 9J.N1H82.01D Laptop Keyboard
According to false rumours,[7] his parents had been Syrians or Turks, giving him the nickname El Turco (The Turk). His detractors drew comparisons between Calles and the "Grand Turk", the anti-Christian leaders from the era of the Crusades. In order not to draw too much attention to his unhappy childhood, Calles chose to ignore those rumours rather than to fight them.[8][9] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
One of the major points of contention with the U.S. was oil. Calles quickly rejected the Bucareli Agreements of 1923 between the U.S. and Mexico, when Álvaro Obregón was president, and began drafting a new oil law that would strictly enforce article 27 of the Mexican constitution. The oil problem stemmed from article 27 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, HP Pavilion G7-1081NR Laptop Keyboard
which re-stated a law from Spanish origin that made everything under the soil property of the state. The language of article 27 threatened the oil possession of U.S. and European oil companies, especially if the article was applied retroactively. ACER PK1307R1A01 Laptop Keyboard
A Mexican Supreme Court decision had ruled that foreign-owned fields could not be seized as long as they were already in operation before the constitution went into effect. The Bucareli Agreements stated that Mexico would agree to respect the Mexican Supreme Court decision in exchange for official recognition from Washington of the presidency of Álvaro Obregón.[10] HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
The reaction of the U.S. government to Calles's intention to enforce article 27 was swift. The American ambassador to Mexico branded Calles a communist, and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg issued a threat against Mexico on 12 June 1925.[11] GATEWAY M-6834 Laptop Keyboard
Calles himself never considered himself a communist but considered revolution a way of governing rather than an ideological position.[citation needed] Public opinion in the United States turned particularly anti-Mexican when the first embassy of the Soviet Union in any country was opened in Mexico, FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard
on which occasion the Soviet ambassador remarked that "no other two countries show more similarities than the Soviet Union and Mexico".[12] After this, some in the United States government, considering Calles's regime Bolshevik, started to refer to Mexico as "Soviet Mexico".[13] SONY Vaio PCG-K25 Laptop Keyboard
The debate on the new oil law occurred in 1925, with U.S. interests opposing all initiatives. By 1926, the new law was enacted. In January 1927 the Mexican government canceled the permits of oil companies that would not comply with the law. SONY VAIO VGN-N220E/W Laptop Keyboard
Talks of war circulated by the U.S. president and in the editorial pages of the New York Times. Mexico managed to avoid war through a series of diplomatic maneuvers. Soon after, a direct telephone link was established between Calles and President Calvin Coolidge, HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard
and the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, James R. Sheffield, was replaced with Dwight Morrow. Morrow won the Calles government over to the United States position and helped negotiate an agreement between the government and the oil companies.[14] HP Pavilion dv7-3190eiCPU Fan
Another source of conflict with the United States was Mexico's support for the liberals in the civil war in Nicaragua, as the United States supported the conservatives. This conflict ended when both countries signed a treaty in which they allowed each other to support the side they considered to be the most democratic. Toshiba Satellite P505D-S8934CPU Fan
On 14 June 1926, President Calles enacted anticlerical legislation known formally as The Law Reforming the Penal Code and unofficially as the Calles Law.[15] Hisanti-Catholic actions included outlawing religious orders, IBM MCF-224PAM05CPU Fan
depriving the Church of property rights and depriving the clergy of civil liberties, including their right to trial by jury (in cases involving anti-clerical laws) and the right to vote.[15][16] Catholic antipathy towards Calles was enhanced because of his vocal atheism.[1] Dell Latitude E6510CPU Fan
On 28 May 1926, Calles was awarded a medal of merit from the head of Mexico's Scottish Rite of Freemasonry for his actions against the Catholics.[17]
Like Obregón (his predecessor), Calles was a practicing Freemason and fervently anti-Catholic.[18][19] Regarding this period, Dell Latitude E6500CPU Fan
recent President Vicente Foxstated, "After 1917, Mexico was led by anti-Catholic Freemasons who tried to evoke the anticlerical spirit of popular indigenous President Benito Juárez of the 1800s. But the military dictators of the 1920s were a lot more savage than Juárez."[20] IBM MCF-C10AM05CPU Fan
Due to Calles's strict and sometimes violent enforcement of anti-clerical laws, people in strongly Catholic areas, especially the states of Jalisco, Zacatecas,Guanajuato, Colima and Michoacán, began to oppose him, HP KSB06105HACPU Fan
and on 1 January 1927, a war cry went up from the faithful Catholics, "¡Viva Cristo Rey!" Government hostility to Catholicism led to the Cristero War from 1926 to 1929, which was characterized by reprisals and counter-reprisals. The Mexican government violently persecuted the clergy, massacring suspected Cristeros and their supporters. Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056CPU Fan
About 90,000 people on both sides died in the war. A truce was negotiated with the assistance of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow in which the Cristeros agreed to lay down their arms.[21] Calles, however, did not abide by the terms of the truce; HP 646578-001CPU Fan
he had approximately five hundred Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros shot, frequently in their homes in front of their wives and children.[21] Particularly offensive to Catholics after the supposed truce was Calles's insistence on a complete state monopoly on education, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
suppressing all Catholic education and introducing "socialist" education in its place, saying: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth."[21] The persecution continued as Calles maintained control under his Maximato and did not relent until 1940, when President Manuel Ávila Camacho, a practicing Catholic, took office.[21] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
The effects of Calles's policy on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 4,000 priests were killed or expelled; one of the most famous was the Jesuit Miguel Pro.[21] Where there were 4,500 priests in Mexico prior to the rebellion, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, execution and assassination.[21][22] By 1935, seventeen states had no priests at all.[23] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
Under Calles's rule in 1926, a constitutional change was passed that allowed for a non-consecutive re-election,[24] and in 1928 Obregón was elected as Calles's successor; this amendment was later repealed in 1934.[25] In addition, Mexico passed an amendment to the constitution in 1927 that allowed a President to serve a six-year term.[26] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
However, Obregón was murdered by José de León Toral, a Catholic militant, before he could assume power. To avoid a political vacuum, Calles named himself Jefe Máximo, the political chieftain of Mexico and Emilio Portes Gil was appointed temporary president, HP 532617-001CPU Fan
although in reality he was little more than a puppet of Calles. The following year, Calles founded the PNR, or Partido Nacional Revolucionario, the predecessor of today's Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI).
The period which Obregón had been elected to serve between 1928 and 1934, in which Calles was Jefe Máximo, is known as the Maximato in Mexican history, with many regarding Emilio Portes Gil, HP 610777-001CPU Fan
Pascual Ortiz Rubio, and Abelardo Rodríguez as his puppets. Officially, after 1929, he served as minister of war, as he continued to suppress the rebellion of the Cristero War, but a few months later, after intervention of the United States ambassador Dwight Morrow, the Mexican government and the Cristeros signed a peace treaty. Dell Vostro 3350CPU Fan
During the Maximato, Calles became increasingly authoritarian and would also serve as Minister of Industry and Commerce.[27] In the early 1930s he appears to have flirted with the idea of implementing aspects of fascism in the government,[28] HP Pavilion dv7-6143clCPU Fan
and the ideology clearly had an influence on him.[29] After a large demonstration in 1930, the Mexican Communist Party was banned, Mexico stopped its support for the rebels of César Sandino in Nicaragua, strikes were no longer tolerated, and the government ceased re-distributing lands amongst poorer peasants. Dell Vostro 3450CPU Fan
Calles had once been the candidate of the workers and at one point had used Communist unions in his campaign against competing labor organizers but later, having acquired wealth and engaging in finance, suppressed Communism.[30] DELL Vostro A860CPU Fan
By the summer of 1933, two of old wartime subordinates of Calles had risen to the top of the party: Manuel Pérez Treviño and Lázaro Cárdenas[31] Calles sought to have Trevino be the party's nominee at the time, seeing that he would be the most likely to continue his policies,[31] DELL Studio 1737CPU Fan
but soon caved into pressure from party officials and agreed to support the popular land reformer Cárdenas as the PNR's presidential candidate in the 1934 Mexican Presidential election.[31] Because Cárdenas had long been associated with Calles since he joined his army in Sonora in 1915,[31] HP Pavilion dv7-6059eoCPU Fan
he was trusted by the callistas and Calles was under the false assumption he could control Cárdenas as he had controlled his predecessors.[31] Soon after his inauguration, however, conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas started to arise. HP 606574-001CPU Fan
Calles opposed Cárdenas's support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, while Cárdenas opposed Calles's violent methods and his closeness to fascist organizations, most notably the Gold Shirts of general Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco, which harassed Communists, Jews and Chinese.[32] Dell Latitude E6510CPU Fan
Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically, removing the callistas from political posts and exiling his most powerful allies: Tomás Garrido Canabal, Fausto Topete, Emilio Portes Gil, Saturnino Cedillo, Aarón Sáenz and finally Calles himself. HP COMPAQ 2510P SeriesCPU Fan
Calles and Luis Napoleón Morones, one of the last remaining influential callistas and onetime Minister of Agriculture,[27] were charged with conspiring to blow up a railroad and placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas. HP 606574-001CPU Fan
Calles was deported to the United States on 9 April 1936 along with the three last highly-influential callistas in Mexico—Morones, Luis León (leader of the Radical Civic Union in Mexico),[33] Toshiba Qosmio G40-10ECPU Fan
and General Rafael Melchor Ortega(onetime Governor of Guanajuato) -- plus his secretary and his son Alfredo.[27] At the time of his arrest, he was reportedly reading a Spanish translation of Mein Kampf.[34][35] Dell Vostro 3350CPU Fan
In exile in the United States, Calles was in contact with various American fascists, although he rejected their anti-Semitic and anti-Mexican sentiments, and also befriended José Vasconcelos, a Mexican philosopher who had previously been a political enemy. Toshiba MF60120V1-B100-G99CPU Fan
Calles was allowed to return to Mexico under the reconciliation policy of Cárdenas's successor Manuel Ávila Camacho in 1941. He spent his last years quietly in Mexico City and Cuernavaca.
Back in Mexico, Calles's political position became more moderate; in 1942 he supported Mexico's declaration of war upon the Axis powers. HP Pavilion dv7-6059eoCPU Fan
In his last years he reportedly became interested in Spiritualism.[36] A few months before his death in October 1945, aged 68, Calles reportedly stated that he "most certainly believed" in a higher power.[37] Toshiba Satellite M70-122CPU Fan
Calles' main legacy was the pacification of Mexico ending the violent era of the Mexican Revolution through the creation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR) which eventually became Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), HP Pavilion dv4-1313dxCPU Fan
which governed Mexico until 2000.
Calles's legacy remains controversial today. He is honored with statues in Sonoyta, Hermosillo, and his hometown of Guaymas. Toshiba Satellite A505-S6980CPU Fan
HP 535438-001CPU Fan
The official name of the municipality of Sonoyta is called General Plutarco Elías Calles in his honor. His starting of the PRN is criticized by many as the beginning of a long undemocratic period in Mexico. HP 532613-001CPU Fan
The origin of printer's devil is not definitively known. Various competing theories of the phrase's origin follow.
Printer's devil has been ascribed to parts of printer's apprentices' skin inevitably being stained black by the ink used in printing. As black was associated with the "black arts", the apprentice came to be called a devil. HP Pavilion dv7-3065dxCPU Fan
Another origin is linked to the fanciful belief among printers that a special devil (see the typographical personificationTitivillus) haunted every print shop, performing mischief such as inverting type, misspelling words or removing entire lines of completed type. The apprentice became a substitute source of blame and came to be called a printer's devil by association. HP Pavilion dv6-3163eoCPU Fan
A third source involves a business partner of Johann Gutenberg, Johann Fust, who sold several of Gutenberg's bibles to KingLouis XI of France and his court officials, representing the bibles as hand-copied manuscripts. ACER Aspire 5315 SeriesCPU Fan
When it was discovered that individual letters were identical in appearance, Fust was accused of witchcraft – the red ink text was said to have been written in blood, and Fust was imprisoned. Though Fust was later freed after the bibles' origins were revealed, many still believed he was in league with Satan, thus the phrase. Compaq Presario CQ42-173TU laptop keyboard
Another possible origin is ascribed to Aldus Manutius, a well-known Venetian printer of the Renaissance and founder of the Aldine Press, who was denounced by detractors for practicing the black arts (early printing was long associated with devilry). FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The assistant to Manutius was a young boy of African descent who was accused of being the embodiment of Satan and dubbed the printer's devil.
One likely source stems from the fact that worn and broken lead type is thrown into a hellbox, which the printer's devil must take to the furnace for melting and recasting. SONY VAIO VGN-FS790 laptop keyboard
Finally, English tradition links the origin of printer's devil to the assistant of the first English printer and book publisher, William Caxton. Caxton's assistant was named "Deville", which evolved to "devil" over time, GATEWAY M-6881 laptop keyboard
as that name was used to describe other printers' apprentices.
The President of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos)[2] is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces. The current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1, 2012. DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, in that the powers of office are derived from the Revolutionary Constitution of 1917. Another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, SONY VAIO VPC-F12 laptop keyboard
called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a caretaker basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the presidential systemof government. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5355 laptop keyboard
Presidential elections have been held every six years since 1934 (the constitution previously provided for a four-year mandate). However, until 1994, most elections were not considered to have met international standards of transparency and cleanliness. HP Pavilion dv6-2131ee laptop keyboard
The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a simple plurality of the national vote is elected; there is no runoff election. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36.38% of the votes in the2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (who contested the official results). SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50%. The current president, Enrique Peña Nieto won 38% of the popular vote.[3] HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
The History of Mexico has not been a peaceful one. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 because of the Mexican Revolution, there was no stable government until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, HP Pavilion dv6-2000CPU Fan
which later changed its name to the Party of the Mexican Revolution, and is now theInstitutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional). From then until 1988, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one-party state. ASUS F80SCPU Fan
Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as "the tap of the finger" (Spanish: el dedazo). Until 1988, the PRI's candidate was virtually assured of election, HP Pavilion dv7-3160emCPU Fan
winning by margins well over 70 percent of the vote—results that were usually obtained by massive electoral fraud. In 1988, however, the PRI ruptured and the dissidents formed the National Democratic Front with rival center-left parties (now the PRD). Toshiba MF60120V1-B100-G99CPU Fan
Discontent with the PRI, and the popularity of the Front's candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas led to worries that PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari would not come close to a majority, and might actually be defeated. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
While the votes were being counted, the tabulation system mysteriously shut down. The government declared Salinas the winner, leading to stronger than ever allegations of electoral fraud.[4] HP Pavilion dv6-2120ee laptop keyboard
The PRI enacted a strict internal discipline and government presence in the country, and electoral fraud became common. After the country regained its peace this pattern of fraud continued, with the opposition losing every election until the later part of the 20th century. TOSHIBA 9J.N9082.J01 laptop keyboard
The first presidential election broadly considered legitimate was the one held in 1994, when the PRI's Ernesto Zedillo took office, and in his term several reforms were enacted to ensure fairness and transparency in elections. DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
Partly as a consequence of these reforms, the 1997 federal congressional election saw the first opposition Chamber of Deputies ever, and the 2000 elections saw Vicente Fox of a PAN/PVEM alliance become the first opposition candidate to win an election since 1911. SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/W laptop keyboard
This historical defeat was accepted on election night by PRI in the voice of President Zedillo; while this calmed fears of violence, it also fueled questions about the role of the president in the electoral process and to whom the responsibility of conceding defeat should fall in a democratic election. SONY VAIO VGN-CR490 laptop keyboard
The role of unions in the new balance of power and future elections is documented in works like historian Enrique Krauze's Analysis of the Corporative System.
The 1917 Constitution borrowed heavily from the Constitution of the United States, providing for a clear separation of powers while giving the president wider powers than his American counterpart. However, this has only recently become the case in practice. HP Pavilion dv6-2163sl laptop keyboard
For the first 71 years after the enactment of the 1917 Constitution, the president exercised nearly absolute control over the country. Much of this power came from the de facto monopoly status of the PRI. As mentioned above, he effectively chose his successor as president by personally nominating the PRI's candidate in the next election. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
In addition, the unwritten rules of the PRI allowed him to designate party officials and candidates all the way down to the local level. He thus had an important (but not exclusive) influence over the political life of the country (part of his power had to be shared with unions and other groups, Packard Bell Easynote LM94 laptop keyboard
but as an individual he had no peers). This, and his constitutional powers, made some political commentators describe the president as a six-year dictator, and to call this system an "imperial presidency". HP Pavilion dv5-1125nr laptop keyboard
The situation remained largely unchanged until the early 1980s, when a grave economic crisis created discomfort both in the population and inside the party, and the president's power was no longer absolute but still impressive. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
An important characteristic of this system is that the new president was effectively chosen by the old one (since the PRI candidate was assured of election) but once he assumed power, the old one lost all power and influence ("no reelection" is a cornerstone of Mexican politics). ACER V104730BS1 laptop keyboard
In fact, tradition called for the incumbent president to fade into the background during the campaign to elect his successor. This renewed command helped maintain party discipline and avoided the stagnation associated with a single man holding power for decades, DELL Vostro 3700 laptop keyboard
prompting Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa to call Mexico's political system "the perfect dictatorship", since the president's powers were cloaked by democratic practice.
With the democratic reforms of recent years and fairer elections, the president's powers have been limited in fact as well as in name. Vargas Llosa, during the Fox administrationHP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
called this new system "The Imperfect Democracy". His current powers and rights include the following:
A decree is a legislative instrument that has an expiration date and that is issued by one of the three branches of government. Congress may issue decrees, ACER PK13ZYU0900 Laptop Keyboard
and the President may issue decrees as well. However, they have all the power of laws, but cannot be changed except by the power that issued them. Decrees are very limited in their extent. One such decree is the federal budget, which is issued by congress. The president's office may suggest a budget, SAMSUNG R470 Laptop Keyboard
but at the end of the day, it is congress that decrees how to collect taxes and how to spend them. A Supreme Court ruling on Vicente Fox's veto of the 2004 budget suggests that the President may have the right to veto decrees from Congress. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
Since 1997, the Congress has been plural, usually with opposition parties having a majority. Major reforms (tax, energy) have to pass by Congress, and the ruling President usually found his efforts blocked: the PRI's Zedillo by opposing PAN/PRD congressmen, and later the PAN's Fox by the PRI and PRD. The PAN would push the reforms it denied to the PRI and viceversa. SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
This situation, novel in a country where Congress was +90% dominated by the president's party for most of the century, has led to a legal analysis of the president's power. Formerly almost a dictator (because of PRI's party discipline), the current times show the president's power as somewhat limited. In 2004, TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard
President Fox threatened to veto the budget approved by Congress, claiming the budget overstepped his authority to lead the country, only to learn no branch of government had the power to veto a decree issued by another branch of government (although a different, nonjurisprudence-setting ruling stated he could return the budget with observations). SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
The Mexican Presidential sash has the colors of the Mexican flag in three bands of equal width, with red on top, white in the center, and green on the bottom, worn from right shoulder to left waist; HP G42-372LA Laptop Keyboard
it also includes the National Seal, in gold thread, to be worn chest-high. During the swearing-in ceremony of a newly elected President, the outgoing President turns in the sash to the current President of Congress, ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
who in turn gives it to the new President after the latter has sworn the oath of office. The sash is the symbol of the Executive Federal Power, and can only be worn by the President.
According to Article 35 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
the President must wear the sash at the swearing-in ceremony, when he makes his annual State of the Union report to Congress, during the commemoration of the Grito de Dolores on September 15 of each year, and when he receives the diplomatic credentials of accredited foreign ambassadors and ministers. Compaq Presario CQ42-173TU Laptop Keyboard
He is also expected to wear it "in those official ceremonies of greatest solemnity." The sash is worn from right shoulder to left hip, and should be worn underneath the coat except during the swearing-in ceremony, when both the out-going and incoming president wear it over their coat (Article 36). Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
In addition to the Presidential Sash, each president receives a Presidential Flag; this flag includes the words Estados Unidos Mexicanos in golden letters and the national coat of arms also in gold.
Former presidents of Mexico continue to carry the title "President" until death but are rarely referred by it; Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
they are commonly called ex-Presidents. They are also given protection by the Estado Mayor Presidencial. Former presidents are also given a lifelong pension, which they can refuse, as in case of Ernesto Zedillo. ACER 9Z.N3K82.01D laptop keyboard
Contrary to what happens in many other countries, former presidents of Mexico do not continue to be important national figures once out of office, and usually lead a discreet life. This is partly because they do not want to interfere with the government of the new president and partly because they may not have a good public image. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
This tradition can be traced back to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas. Former president Plutarco Elías Calles had personally selected Cárdenas as his successor, and had hoped to control things from behind the scenes as he had for the last five years. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
However, when Cárdenas showed he was going to rule in fact as well as in name, Calles publicly criticized him, prompting Cárdenas to have Calles escorted out of the country by military police. Cárdenas himself remained silent on the policies of his successor Manuel Ávila Camacho, establishing a tradition that former presidents do not interfere with their successors. SAMSUNG R50 Laptop Keyboard
For example, Ernesto Zedillo holds important offices in the United Nations and in the private sector, but outside of Mexico. It is speculated he lives in a self-imposed exile to avoid the hatred of some of his fellow members of the PRI for having acknowledged the PRI's defeat in the 2000 presidential election. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Carlos Salinas also lived in a self-imposed exile in Ireland, but returned to Mexico. He campaigned intensely to have his brother, Raúl Salinas, freed after he was jailed in the early days of Zedillo's term, accused of drug trafficking and planning the assassination of José Francisco Ruiz Massieu. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5246 Laptop Keyboard
Carlos Salinas also wrote a book on neo-liberal Mexico, secured a position with the Dow Jones Company in the United States, and worked as a professor at several prestigious universities in that country. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Two other surviving former presidents, Luis Echeverría and Vicente Fox, still live in Mexico. On June 30, 2006, Echeverría was placed under house arrest under charges of genocide for his role as Secretary of the Interior during the 1968 Tlatelolco Massacre.[6] The house arrest was lifted in 2009. HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
A bodyguard (or close protection officer)[1] is a type of security operative or government agent who protects a person or persons — usually a public, wealthy, or politically important figure(s) — from danger: generally theft,assault, kidnapping, homicide, harassment, loss of confidential information, threats, or other criminal offences. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Most important public figures such as heads of state, heads of government and governors are protected by several bodyguards or by a team of bodyguards from an agency, security forces, or police forces (e.g., in the U.S., the United States Secret Service or the State Department's Diplomatic Security Service). HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
In most countries where the Head of state is and have always been also their military leader, the leader's bodyguards have traditionally been Royal Guards,Republican Guards and other elite military units. ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard
Less-important public figures, or those with lower risk profiles, may be accompanied by a single bodyguard who doubles as a driver. A number of high-profile celebrities and CEOs also use bodyguards. DELL Studio 1749 Laptop Keyboard
The role of a bodyguard depends on several factors. First, it depends on the role of a given bodyguard in a close protection team. A bodyguard can be a driver-bodyguard, a close-protection officer (who escorts the client), or part of an ancillary unit that provides support such as IED detection, TOSHIBA 9J.N9082.J01 Laptop Keyboard
electronic "bug" detection, counter-sniper monitoring, pre-searches facilities, and background-checks people who will have contact with the client. Second, the role of a bodyguard depends on the level of risk that the client faces. HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard
A bodyguard protecting a client at high risk ofassassination will be focusing on very different roles (e.g., checking cars for IED devices, bombs, watching for potential shooters, etc.) than a bodyguard escorting a celebrity who is being stalked by aggressive tabloid photographers (e.g., HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
the role will be to ask the photographers to maintain their distance and block the path of aggressive cameramen). Some bodyguards specialize in the close quarter protection of children of VIPs, to protect them from kidnapping or assassination, a role which is nicknamed "mannyguarding" (a pun on the word "nanny").[3] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
In some cases, bodyguards also drive their clients. Normally, it is not sufficient for a client to be protected by a single driver-bodyguard, because this would mean that the bodyguard would have to leave the car unattended when they escort the client on foot. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
If the car is left unattended, this can lead to several risks: an explosive device may be attached to the car; an electronic "bug" may be attached to the car; the car may be sabotaged; or city parking officials may simply tow away the vehicle or place a wheel lock on the tire. TOSHIBA Satellite 1800-412 laptop keyboard
If parking services tow away or disable the car, then the bodyguard cannot use the car to escape with the client in case there is a security threat while the client is at his or her meeting.
The driver should be trained in evasive driving techniques, such as executing short-radius turns to change the direction of the vehicle, high-speed cornering, and so on. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The car used by the client will typically be a large sedan with a low center of gravity and a powerful engine, such as a BMW or Mercedes Benz. At a minimum, the vehicle should have ballistic glass, some type of armor reinforcement to protect the client from gunfire, and a foam-filled gas tank. "Run-flat" tires and armor protection for the driver are also desirable. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ52B laptop keyboard
The car may also be equipped with an additional battery; dual footpedal controls, such as those used by driving instruction companies (in case the driver is wounded or incapacitated), a PA system with a microphone and a megaphone mounted on the outside of the car, HP Pavilion dv6-3160so laptop keyboard
so that the driver can give commands to other convoy vehicles or bodyguards who are on foot; fire extinguishers inside the vehicle in case the vehicle is struck by a Molotov cocktail bomb or other weapon; a reinforced front and rear bumper, to enable the driver to ram attacking vehicles; and additional mirrors, DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
to give the driver a better field of view. In Latin American countries many armored cars will come with a siren and lights to use in situations were they need to get out of places quickly. Decoy convoys and vehicles are used to prevent tailing. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
In the event the convoy holding the client is compromised and ambushed, decoy convoys can also act as a reinforcement force that can ambush a force that is attacking the primary convoy. Some clients rotate between residences in different cities when attending public events or meetings to prevent being tailed home or to a private location. SONY VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q laptop keyboard
In addition to these weapons, a bodyguard team may also have more specialist weapons to aid them in maintaining the safety of their principal, such as sniper rifles and anti-material rifles (for anti-sniper protection) or shotguns (either loaded with buckshot as an anti-personnel weapon or with solid slugs as an anti-vehicle weapon). SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
Bodyguards that protect high-risk principals may wear body armor such as kevlar or ceramic vests. The bodyguards may also have other ballistic shields, such as kevlar-reinforced briefcases or clipboards which, while appearing innocuous, can be used to protect the principal. The principal may also wear body armor in high-risk situations. ACER TravelMate 3012 laptop keyboard
For a close protection officer, the primary tactic against sniper attacks is defensive: avoid exposing the principal to the risk of being fired upon. This means that the principal should ideally be within an armored vehicle or a secure structure. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
As well, when the principal moves between a vehicle and a building, the principal must be moved quickly to minimize the time window in which a sniper could take a shot and use a flanking escort of close protection officers to block the view of the sniper and any potential shot that the sniper may take. ACER Aspire 5625G laptop keyboard
The use of offensive tactics against snipers will occur very rarely in a bodyguard context. Some planning for the day would have begun on previous days. Once the itinerary is known, one or more bodyguards would travel the route to the venues, to check the roads for unexpected changes (road work, detours, closed lanes) Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
and to check the venue. The venue needs to be checked for bugs and the security of the facility (exits, entrances) needs to be inspected. As well, the bodyguards will want to know the names of the staff who will have contact with the client, so that a simple electronicbackground check can be run on these individuals. Bodyguards often have training in firearms tactics, unarmed combat, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
tactical driving, and first aid. In multi-agent units (like those protecting a head of state) one or more bodyguards may have training in specific tasks, such as providing a protective escort, crowd screening and control, or searching for explosives orelectronic surveillance devices ("bugs"). IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Bodyguards also learn how to work with other security personnel to conduct threat or risk assessment and analyze potential security weaknesses. Bodyguards learn how to examine a premises or venue before their clients arrive, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
to determine where the exits and entrances are, find potential security weaknesses, and meet the staff (so that a would-be attacker cannot pose as a staff member). As well, some bodyguards learn how to do research to be aware of potential threats to their client, HP Pavilion dv6-3108tu laptop keyboard
by doing a thorough assessment of the threats facing the principal, such as a protest by a radical group or the release from custody of person who is a known threat. Close protection officers also learn how to escort a client in potentially threatening situations. SONY VAIO VGN-N160G/W laptop keyboard
The militaries in many countries offer close protection training for the members of their own armed forces who have been selected to work as bodyguards to officers or heads of state (e.g., the British SAS). As well, HP Pavilion DV7-3164cl laptop keyboard
there are a number of private bodyguard training programs, which offer training in all aspects of close protection and including the legal aspects of bodyguarding (e.g., use of force, use of deadly force); how to escort clients; driving; searching facilities and vehicles, and so on. HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
When the convoy arrives at the location, one or more bodyguards will exit first to confirm that the location is secure and that the staff who were booked to work that day are the ones who are present. If the location is secure, these bodyguards signal that it is safe to bring in the client. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R52-1860 laptop keyboard
The client is escorted into the building using a flanking procedure. If the client is attending a private meeting inside the building, and the building itself is secure (controlled entrances) the client will not need to have a bodyguard escort in the building. COMPAQ Presario CQ40 laptop keyboard
The bodyguards can then pull back to monitor his or her safety from a further distance. Bodyguards could monitor entrances and exits and the driver-bodyguard watches the cars.
If the client is moving about in a fairly controlled environment such as a private golf course, HP 640892-001 laptop keyboard
which has limited entrances and exits, the security detail may drop down to one or two bodyguards, with the other bodyguards monitoring the entrances to the facility, the cars, and remaining in contact with the bodyguards escorting the client. DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
Throughout the day, as the client goes about his activities, the number of bodyguards escorting the client will increase or decrease according to the level of risk. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
After the day's activities, the client will be brought back to the secure residence location. Exiting from the vehicle and walking to the door exposes the client to risk, so the distance is kept as short as possible to cut down the time it takes to reach the door. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
Once the client is inside, the bodyguards assigned to the overnight detail will take up their positions outside or inside the residence. The vehicles are then parked in a locked garage (to prevent tampering, sabotage, or IED placement). ACER Aspire 3810T-H22F laptop keyboard
Some team members may spend additional time doing maintenance on the equipment used by the team. The TL (team leader) will ensure that all equipment is checked and packed away for the next day and ensure the radios are being charged for the next day's operation. HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa laptop keyboard
Bodyguards often have backgrounds in the armed forces, police or security services, although this is not required. The exception to this is in the case of bodyguards protecting heads of state; in some countries, HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard
these bodyguards must be trained in military bodyguard training programs. Military experience in foot patrol and convoysescort through urban areas in conflict or war as in Afghanistan, Iraq, West Bank,Northern Ireland, Beirut, Basque country, Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
Soweto and other areas under non conventional enemy stress around civilians is highly considered and difficult to match with any training time though, usually those experienced do not always seek these careers or further exposure in less stressful circumstances but familiar environments. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Bodyguards must be physically fit, with good eyesight and hearing, and they need to have a presentable appearance, especially for close protection work for dignitaries and heads of state. A drivers license is usually required, IBM Lenovo IdeaPad G510 Series CPU Fan
so that the bodyguard can double as a driver. In the United Kingdom and some other countries, bodyguards have to have a license or certification with the SIA, which involves identity and criminal record checks. To be a bodyguard in an agency protecting a head of state, a bodyguard will have to undergo extensive background and loyalty checks. HP Pavilion dv5-1198er CPU Fan
Bodyguards need to be observant, and retain their focus on their job, despite distractions such as fatigue. As well, they need to be able to work as member of a team, with assigned tasks, or be able to act independently, HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
and adapt and improvise an appropriate response if the need arises. Bodyguards need to be able to recognize potentially dangerous situations and remain calm under pressure. A bodyguard has to have a strong dedication to their protective role. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Since bodyguards often have to collaborate or coordinate their protection with other security forces, such as local police other private security guards, bodyguards need good interpersonal and communications skills. SONY Vaio VGN-CR42S/B CPU Fan
Since bodyguards accompany their client throughout their day, the bodyguard will be privy to the private life of the client, which means that a bodyguard has to show discretion and maintain confidentiality. HP 580696-001 CPU Fan
Bodyguards often have training in firearms tactics, unarmed combat, tactical driving, and first aid. In multi-agent units (like those protecting a head of state) one or more bodyguards may have training in specific tasks, HP 610774-001 CPU Fan
such as providing a protective escort, crowd screening and control, or searching for explosives or electronic surveillance devices ("bugs"). Bodyguards also learn how to work with other security personnel to conduct threat or risk assessment and analyze potential security weaknesses. HP Pavilion dv7-4191eb CPU Fan
Bodyguards learn how to examine a premises or venue before their clients arrive, to determine where the exits and entrances are, find potential security weaknesses, and meet the staff (so that a would-be attacker cannot pose as a staff member). HP Pavilion dv6-2180ey CPU Fan
As well, some bodyguards learn how to do research to be aware of potential threats to their client, by doing a thorough assessment of the threats facing the principal,[5] such as a protest by a radical group or the release from custody of person who is a known threat. Close protection officers also learn how to escort a client in potentially threatening situations. HP Envy 17-2077ez CPU Fan
The militaries in many countries offer close protection training for the members of their own armed forces who have been selected to work as bodyguards to officers or heads of state (e.g., the British SAS). As well, HP Pavilion dv6-3085tx laptop keyboard
there are a number of private bodyguard training programs, which offer training in all aspects of close protection and including the legal aspects of bodyguarding (e.g., use of force, use of deadly force); how to escort clients; driving; searching facilities and vehicles, and so on. HP Mini 110-3014tu laptop keyboard
Within the UK, the industry is regulated via the Security Industry Authority and requires an individual to obtain a level 3 vocational training qualification in addition to a first aid certificate prior to a license being issued. Most UK firms will also request this even if operations are outside of the UK. HP Pavilion dv6-3046eo laptop keyboard
In countries where the head of state is a military leader or dictator, the leader's bodyguards may also be part of an elitemilitary unit. Such was the case with the Somatophylakes in Macedon, Schutzstaffel in Nazi Germany, the former Iraqi Special Republican Guard, or the Praetorian Guard in the Roman Empire, Varangians of the Byzantine Empire, or the Housecarls of the English Monarchs. SONY VAIO VGN-CS230J/Q laptop keyboard
The British monarch has at least three traditional bodyguard corps in service, known collectively as the Sovereign's Bodyguard.
In India, VIPs are protected by National Security Guards (NSG), an organization under the Ministry of Home Affairs. ACER MP-04653U4-442 laptop keyboard
The protection of the Prime Minister and some other important persons is entrusted with the Special Protection Group (SPG). SPG was formed as a specialized unit in the protection of Prime Minister and his family members, Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
after the assassination of the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, in 1984. Former Prime Ministers also get the protection of SPG for a period of 5 years, after stepping down from the post. The President of India is also protected by SPG while the President's Bodyguards, FUJITSU LifeBook A6110 CPU Fan
which is a mechanized regiment of Indian Army, has now a largely ceremonial role. Persons with lower threat level are given security cover by Delhi police in the Capitol and respective state police forces elsewhere. APPLE MacBook Pro 17 inch A1151 CPU Fan
In Pakistan, the President and Prime Minister receive close protection teams from the military's elite Special Service Group unit. President Pervez Musharraf, as civilian head of state, was due to have this withdrawn after retiring as Chief of Army Staff, but the Pakistan Army has retained his close protection unit. HP 606013-001 CPU Fan
In Turkey, there are two main services, tasked with close protection. The Prime Minister of Turkey is protected by the Karşı Saldırı Timi'nde (KST), an elite counterattack team, a subunit of the Office for Protection of the Prime Minister (Başbakanlık Koruma Dairesi Başkanlığı). HP Pavilion dv5-2035dx CPU Fan
The Office for Protection of the PM is itself a service of the General Directorate of Security (Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü), the civil police force of Turkey. The President is closely protected by the Cumhurbaskanligi Muhafiz Alayi, HP 441137-001 CPU Fan
the 2 500-strong Presidential Guard Regiment of the Turkish Army, subordinated to the 4th Army Corps. It consists of specially selected personnel and is charged with the duty of protecting the President (and members of his family), HP 657529-001 CPU Fan
security of the Presidential palaces and also the manning of the Turkish President's mode of transport (e.g. pilots for TC-ANA, the presidential plane etc.).
The brave and fiercely protective bodyguard who is willing to die to protect his master has long been depicted in fiction. Toshiba Satellite L550-00P CPU Fan
The character of the Scottish hero Quentin Durward appears in stories as the bodyguard of the King of France. The character Charles d'Artagnan appears in stories as the bodyguard of the French Crown. HP 3MLX8TATP20 CPU Fan
The characterAtticus Kodiak is a professional bodyguard who acts as narrator and protagonist in a series of novels by Greg Rucka. Bodyguards also appear in Usagi Yojimbo, Stan Sakai's anthropomorphic-rabbit samurai based upon Miyamoto Musashi and in theArtemis Fowl series of children's books. SONY Vaio VPC-EE4E1E/WI CPU Fan
Bodyguards are also depicted in a number of films. Japanese director Akira Kurosawa's film Yojimbo depicts a samurai bodyguard in Japan. The Bodyguard is a film about a bodyguard who protects a celebrity singer. Compaq Presario CQ60-419wm CPU Fan
Gogo Yubari is O-Ren Ishii's bodyguard in the film Kill Bill 1. In the science-fiction/fantasy Star Wars films, MagnaGuard is General Grievous's bodyguard, duties performed on special occasions by the Jedi Knights. In the film Lord of War, the main character's brother protects him while he makes arms deals in war-torn countries. HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo CPU Fan
In the film Shanghai Noon martial arts and cinema star Jackie Chan plays the role of an Imperial Guard of China on a mission to America to help rescue a princess.
In the film Man on Fire, John Creasy (Denzel Washington) is a burnt-out ex-CIA officer and counter-insurgency operative who grudgingly becomes the bodyguard of a young girl (played by Dakota Fanning). When kidnappers attempt to snatch the girl, HP X16-1000 Series CPU Fan
Creasy is severely wounded in a gun battle. The film depicts his perseverance in attempting to continue to protect the girl despite his gunshot wounds, until he becomes unconscious.
Several films have been made about the Secret Service's role in guarding the President of the U.S., such as In the Line of Fire and The Sentinel. HP Pavilion dv6-3109ca CPU Fan
Bodyguards are also depicted in television shows, comics, and other media. Bodyguard is a Japanese television series starring Reiko Takashima. In the UK,Bodyguards was a late 1990s British television series about a specialized Close Protection Group that protected members of the UK government. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
In the Mortal Kombat fighting game series, Sheeva is the personal protector of Sindel. Suki is a Japanese manga about a relationship between a teenage girl and a 32-year-old bodyguard.
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