Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Muhammad Ali Jinnah[a] ( Audio (help•info), born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai; 25 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was alawyer, politician, and the founder of Pakistan.[1] Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistan's independence on 14 August 1947, and as Pakistan's first Governor-General from independence until his death. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
He is revered in Pakistan as Quaid-i-Azam[b] (Great Leader) and Baba-i-Qaum[c] (Father of the Nation). His birthday is observed as a national holiday.[2][3]
Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard
In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu–Muslim unity, helping to shape the 1916 Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the All-India Muslim League, a party in which Jinnah had also become prominent. HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen-point constitutional reform planto safeguard the political rights of Muslims should a united British India become independent. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 Laptop Keyboard
In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha, or non-violent resistance, advocated by the influential leader,Mohandas Gandhi.
By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state. In that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, SONY VAIO PCG-F23 Laptop Keyboard
passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation. During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned, and in the elections held shortly after the war, HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims. Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power-sharing formula for a united India, leading all parties to agree to separate independence for a predominately Hindu India, and for a Muslim-majority state, to be called Pakistan. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
As the first Governor-General of Pakistan, Jinnah worked to establish the new nation's government and policies, and to aid the millions of Muslim migrants who had emigrated from the new nation of India to Pakistan after the partition, personally supervising the establishment of refugee camps. Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the British Raj. He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan, though he is less well thought of in India. According to his biographer, Stanley Wolpert, he remains Pakistan's greatest leader. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah was born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai,[d] most likely in 1876,[e] to Jinnahbhai Poonja and his wife Mithibai, in a rented apartment on the second floor of Wazir Mansion, Karachi.[4] Jinnah's birthplace is in Sindh, a region today part of Pakistan, but then within theBombay Presidency of British India. Lenovo Ideapad Y410 Laptop Keyboard
His father was a prosperous Gujarati merchant who had been born to a family of weavers in the village of Paneli in the princely state of Gondal; his mother was also of that village. They had moved to Karachi about 1875, HP AELX9U00210 Laptop Keyboard
having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying an economic boom: the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay.[5][6] Compaq Presario CQ71-410ED Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah's family was of the Ismaili Khoja branch of Shi'a Islam,[7] though Jinnah later followed the Twelver Shi'a teachings.[8] Jinnah was the second child;[9][10] he had three brothers and three sisters, including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the children also came to speak Kutchi, Sindhi and English.[11] Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal or political careers.[12] DELL 5HK36 Laptop Keyboard
As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Gokal Das Tej Primary School there, later on studying at the Cathedral and John Connon School. In Karachi, he attended the Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School.[13][14] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school. In his later years and especially after his death, a large number of stories about the boyhood of Pakistan's founder were circulated: that he spent all his spare time at the police court, listening to the proceedings, TOSHIBA NB200 Laptop Keyboard
and that he studied his books by the glow of street lights for lack of other illumination. His official biographer, Hector Bolitho, writing in 1954, interviewed surviving boyhood associates, and obtained a tale that the young Jinnah discouraged other children from playing marbles in the dust, urging them to rise up, keep their hands and clothes clean, and play cricket instead.[15] HP 580696-001 CPU Fan
In 1892, Sir Frederick Leigh Croft, a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poonja, offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm,Graham's Shipping and Trading Company.[16] He accepted the position despite the opposition of his mother, who before he left, had him enter an arranged marriage with a girl two years his junior from the ancestral village of Paneli, Emibai Jinnah. HP COMPAQ KSB05105HA CPU Fan
Jinnah's mother and first wife both died during his absence in England.[17] Although the apprenticeship in London was considered a great opportunity for Jinnah, one reason for sending him overseas was a legal proceeding against his father, which placed the family's property at risk of being sequestered by the court. HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
In 1893, the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay.[13]
Soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law, enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three years. The aspiring barrister joined Lincoln's Inn, HP 486799-001 CPU Fan
later stating that the reason he chose Lincoln's over the other Inns of Court was that over the main entrance to Lincoln's Inn were the names of the world's great lawgivers, including Muhammad. Jinnah's biographer Stanley Wolpert notes that there is no such inscription, HP 540 CPU Fan
but instead inside is a mural showing Muhammad and other lawgivers, and speculates that Jinnah may have edited the story in his own mind to avoid mentioning a pictorial depiction which would be offensive to many Muslims.[18] DELL GB0506PGV1-8A CPU Fan
Jinnah's legal education at the Inns of Court followed the apprenticeship system, which had been in force there for centuries. To gain knowledge of the law, he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did, as well as from studying lawbooks.[19] During this period, he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah.[20] HP Pavilion dv9016ea CPU Fan
During his student years in England, Jinnah was influenced by 19th-century British liberalism, like many other future Indian independence leaders. This political education included exposure to the idea of the democratic nation, and progressive politics.[21] Dell Vostro 3350 CPU Fan
He became an admirer of the Parsi Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Naoroji had become the first Member of Parliament of Indian extraction shortly before Jinnah's arrival, triumphing with a majority of three votes in Finsbury Central. Jinnah listened to his maiden speech in the House of Commons from the visitor's gallery.[22][23] SONY Vaio VGN-FS415M CPU Fan
The Western world not only inspired Jinnah in his political life, but also greatly influenced his personal preferences, particularly when it came to dress. Jinnah abandoned Indian garb for Western-style clothing, and throughout his life he was always impeccably dressed in public. He came to own over 200 suits, which he wore with heavily starched shirts with detachable collars, Compaq Presario CQ61-324EZ CPU Fan
and as a barrister took pride in never wearing the same silk tie twice.[24] Even when he was dying, he insisted on being formally dressed, "I will not travel in my pyjamas."[12] In his later years he was usually seen wearing a Karakul hat which subsequently came to be known as the "Jinnah cap".[25] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Dissatisfied with the law, Jinnah briefly embarked on a stage career with a Shakespearean company, but resigned after receiving a stern letter from his father.[26] In 1895, at age 19, he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England.[10] Although he returned to Karachi, he remained there only a short time before moving to Bombay.[26] HP Mini 110-1131DX Laptop Keyboard
Aged twenty, Jinnah began his practice in Bombay, the only Muslim barrister in the city.[10] English had become his principal language and would remain so throughout his life. His first three years in the law, from 1897 to 1900, brought him few briefs. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
His first step towards a brighter career occurred when the acting Advocate General of Bombay, John Molesworth MacPherson, invited Jinnah to work from his chambers.[27][28] In 1900, P. H. Dastoor, a Bombay presidency magistrate, SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
left the post temporarily and Jinnah succeeded in getting the interim position. After his six-month appointment period, Jinnah was offered a permanent position on a 1,500 rupee per month salary. Jinnah politely declined the offer, stating that he planned to earn 1,500 rupees a day—a huge sum at that time—which he eventually did.[27][28][29] ACER TravelMate 3270 laptop keyboard
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Nevertheless, as Governor-General of Pakistan, he would refuse to accept a large salary, fixing it at 1 rupee per month.[30]
As a lawyer, Jinnah gained fame for his skilled handling of the 1907 "Caucus Case". This controversy arose out of Bombay municipal elections, which Indians alleged were rigged by a "caucus" of Europeans to keep Sir Pherozeshah Mehta out of the council. Jinnah gained great esteem from leading the case for Sir Pherozeshah, Toshiba MF60120V1-B100-G99 CPU Fan
himself a noted barrister. Although Jinnah did not win the Caucus Case, he posted a successful record, becoming well known for his advocacy and legal logic.[31][32] In 1908, his factional foe in the Indian National Congress, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, HP Mini 110-1110ET CPU Fan
was arrested for sedition. Before Tilak unsuccessfully represented himself at trial, he engaged Jinnah in an attempt to secure his release on bail. Jinnah did not succeed, but obtained an acquittal for Tilak when he was charged with sedition again in 1916.[33] HP 489126-001 CPU Fan
One of Jinnah's fellow barristers from the Bombay High Court remembered that "Jinnah's faith in himself was incredible"; he recalled that on being admonished by a judge with "Mr. Jinnah, remember that you are not addressing a third-class magistrate"HP Pavilion dv6-3040sl CPU Fan
Jinnah shot back "My Lord, allow me to warn you that you are not addressing a third-class pleader."[34]Another of his fellow barristers described him:
He was what God made him, a great pleader. He had a sixth sense: he could see around corners. That is where his talents lay ... he was a very clear thinker ... But he drove his points home—points chosen with exquisite selection—slow delivery, word by word.[31][35] Toshiba Satellite L555D-S7005 CPU Fan
In 1857, many Indians had risen in revolt against British rule. In the aftermath of the conflict, some Anglo-Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self-government for the subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Most founding members had been educated in Britain, Dell Studio XPS 1645 CPU Fan
and were content with the minimal reform efforts being made by the government.[36] Muslims were not enthusiastic about calls for democratic institutions in British India, as they constituted a quarter to a third of the population, outnumbered by the Hindus.[37]Early meetings of the Congress contained a minority of Muslims, mostly from the elite.[38] HP Pavilion dv6-3278ca CPU Fan
In 1857, many Indians had risen in revolt against British rule. In the aftermath of the conflict, some Anglo-Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self-government for the subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Most founding members had been educated in Britain, HP Pavilion dv5247eu CPU Fan
and were content with the minimal reform efforts being made by the government.[36] Muslims were not enthusiastic about calls for democratic institutions in British India, as they constituted a quarter to a third of the population, outnumbered by the Hindus.[37]Early meetings of the Congress contained a minority of Muslims, mostly from the elite.[38] HP Pavilion dv7-6013eg CPU Fan
Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress's twentieth annual meeting, in Bombay in December 1904.[39] He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu–Muslim unity in achieving self-government, and following such leaders as Mehta, Naoroji, andGopal Krishna Gokhale.[40] ACER Travelmate 8104WLMI CPU Fan
They were opposed by leaders such as Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai, who sought quick action towards freedom.[41] In 1906, a delegation of Muslim leaders headed by the Aga Khan called on the new Viceroy of India, Lord Minto, to assure him of their loyalty and to ask for assurances that in any political reforms they would be protected from the "unsympathetic [Hindu] majority".[42] SONY Vaio VGN-NR120Q CPU Fan
Dissatisfied with this, Jinnah wrote a letter to the editor of the newspaper Gujarati, asking what right the members of the delegation had to speak for Indian Muslims, as they were unelected and self-appointed.[40] HP Pavilion dv7-6187cl CPU Fan
When many of the same leaders met in Dacca in December of that year to form the All-India Muslim Leagueto advocate for their community's interests, Jinnah was again opposed. The Aga Khan later wrote that it was "freakishly ironic" that Jinnah, who would lead the League to independence, "ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 laptop keyboard
came out in bitter hostility toward all that I and my friends had done ... He said that our principle of separate electorates was dividing the nation against itself."[43] In its earliest years, however, the League was not influential; Minto refused to consider it as the Muslim community's representative, and it was ineffective in preventing the 1911 repeal of the partition of Bengal, an action seen as a blow to Muslim interests.[44] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 laptop keyboard
Although Jinnah initially opposed separate electorates for Muslims, he used this means to gain his first elective office in 1909, as Bombay's Muslim representative on the Imperial Legislative Council. He was a compromise candidate when two older, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
better-known Muslims who were seeking the post deadlocked. The council, which had been expanded to 60 members as part of reforms enacted by Minto, recommended legislation to the Viceroy. Only officials could vote in the council; non-official members, such as Jinnah, had no vote. Throughout his legal career, SONY VAIO PCG-F23 laptop keyboard
Jinnah practised probate law (with many clients from India's nobility), and in 1911 introduced the Wakf Validation Act to place Muslim religious trusts on a sound legal footing under British Indian law. Two years later, the measure passed, the first act sponsored by non-officials to pass the council and be enacted by the Viceroy.[45] HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
[46] Jinnah was also appointed to a committee which helped to establish the Indian Military Academy in Dehra Dun.[47]
In December 1912, Jinnah addressed the annual meeting of the Muslim League, although he was not yet a member. SONY VAIO VGN-CS190* laptop keyboard
He joined the following year, although he remained a member of the Congress as well and stressed that League membership took second priority to the "greater national cause" of a free India. In April 1913, he again went to Britain, with Gokhale, to meet with officials on behalf of the Congress. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ52B laptop keyboard
Gokhale, a Hindu, later stated that Jinnah "has true stuff in him, and that freedom from all sectarian prejudice which will make him the best ambassador of Hindu–Muslim Unity".[48] Jinnah led another delegation of the Congress to London in 1914, but due to the start of the First World War found officials little interested in Indian reforms. SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
By coincidence, he was in Britain at the same time as a man who would become a great political rival of his, Mohandas Gandhi, a Hindu lawyer who had become well known for advocating satyagraha, non-violent non-cooperation, while in South Africa. Jinnah attended a reception for Gandhi, and returned home to India in January 1915.[49] HP Pavilion DV7-3063cl laptop keyboard
Break from the Congress
Jinnah's moderate faction in the Congress was undermined by the deaths of Mehta and Gokhale in 1915; he was further isolated by the fact that Naoroji was in London, where he remained until his death in 1917. Nevertheless, Jinnah worked to bring the Congress and League together. In 1916, Compaq Presario CQ71-220EF laptop keyboard
with Jinnah now president of the Muslim League, the two organisations signed the Lucknow Pact, setting quotas for Muslim and Hindu representation in the various provinces. Although the pact was never fully implemented, its signing ushered in a period of cooperation between the Congress and the League.[50][38] HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
During the war, Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort, hoping that Indians would be rewarded with political freedoms. Jinnah played an important role in the founding of the All India Home Rule League in 1916. HP G62-a20SQ laptop keyboard
Along with political leaders Annie Besant and Tilak, Jinnah demanded "home rule" for India—the status of a self-governing dominion in the Empire similar to Canada, New Zealand and Australia, although, with the war, DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
Britain's politicians were not interested in considering Indian constitutional reform. British Cabinet minister Edwin Montagu recalled Jinnah in his memoirs, "young, perfectly mannered, impressive-looking, armed to the teeth with dialectics, and insistent on the whole of his scheme".[51] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
In 1918, Jinnah married his second wife Rattanbai Petit ("Ruttie"), 24 years his junior. She was the fashionable young daughter of his friend Sir Dinshaw Petit, of an elite Parsifamily of Bombay.[21] SONY 147977821 laptop keyboard
There was great opposition to the marriage from Rattanbai's family and the Parsi community, as well as from some Muslim religious leaders. Rattanbai defied her family and nominally converted to Islam, adopting (though never using) the name Maryam Jinnah, resulting in a permanent estrangement from her family and Parsi society. HP Pavilion DV8210US laptop keyboard
The couple resided in Bombay, and frequently travelled across India and Europe. The couple's only child, daughter Dina Jinnah, was born on 15 August 1919.[21][52] The couple separated prior to Ruttie's death in 1929, and subsequently Jinnah's sister Fatima looked after him and his child.[53] HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
Relations between Indians and British were strained in 1919 when the Imperial Legislative Council extended emergency wartime restrictions on civil liberties; Jinnah resigned from it when it did. There was unrest across India, which worsened after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, in which British troops fired upon a protest meeting, DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
killing hundreds. In the wake of Amritsar, Gandhi, who had returned to India and become a widely respected leader and highly influential in the Congress, called for satyagraha against the British. Gandhi's proposal gained broad Hindu support, and was also attractive to many Muslims of the Khilafat faction. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
These Muslims, supported by Gandhi, sought retention of the Uthman caliphate, which supplied spiritual leadership to many Muslims. The caliph was the Ottoman Emperor, who would be deprived of both offices following his nation's defeat in the First World War. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
Gandhi had achieved considerable popularity among Muslims because of his work during the war on behalf of killed or imprisoned Muslims.[54][55][56] Unlike Jinnah and other leaders of the Congress, Gandhi did not wear western-style clothing, did his best to use an Indian language instead of English, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
and was deeply rooted in Indian culture. Gandhi's local style of leadership gained great popularity with the Indian people. Jinnah criticised Gandhi's Khilafat advocacy, which he saw as an endorsement of religious zealotry.[57] TOSHIBA H000006820 laptop keyboard
Jinnah regarded Gandhi's proposed satyagraha campaign as political anarchy, and believed that self-government should be secured through constitutional means. He opposed Gandhi, but the tide of Indian opinion was against him. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
At the 1920 session of the Congress in Nagpur, Jinnah was shouted down by the delegates, who passed Gandhi's proposal, pledging satyagraha until India was free. Jinnah did not attend the subsequent League meeting, HP Pavilion DV6-1351nr laptop keyboard
held in the same city, which passed a similar resolution. Because of the action of the Congress in endorsing Gandhi's campaign, Jinnah resigned from it, leaving all positions except in the Muslim League.[58][59] SONY VAIO VGN-AR720E/B laptop keyboard
Wilderness years; interlude in England
Jinnah devoted much of his time to his law practice in the early 1920s, but remained politically involved. The alliance between Gandhi and the Khilafat faction did not last long, and the campaign of resistance proved less effective than hoped, as India's institutions continued to function. Jinnah sought alternative political ideas, SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
and contemplated organising a new political party as a rival to the Congress. In September 1923, Jinnah was elected as Muslim member for Bombay in the new Central Legislative Assembly. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
In 1925, as recognition for his legislative activities, he was offered a knighthood by Lord Reading, who was retiring from the Viceroyalty. He replied: "I prefer to be plain Mr. Jinnah."[60]
In 1927, the British Government, under Conservative Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, SONY KFRSBA019A laptop keyboard
undertook a decennial review of Indian policy mandated by the Government of India Act 1919. The review began two years early as Baldwin feared he would lose the next election (which he did, in 1929). The Cabinet was influenced by minister Winston Churchill, who strongly opposed self-government for India, HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
and members hoped that by having the commission appointed early, the policies for India which they favoured would survive their government. The resulting commission, led by Liberal MP John Simon, though with a majority of Conservatives, ACER Extensa 7720 laptop keyboard
arrived in India in March 1928.[61] They were met with a boycott by India's leaders, Muslim and Hindu alike, angered at the British refusal to include their representatives on the commission. A minority of Muslims, though, withdrew from the League, choosing to welcome the Simon Commission and repudiating Jinnah. SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
Most members of the League's executive council remained loyal to Jinnah, attending the League meeting in December 1927 and January 1928 which confirmed him as the League's permanent president. At that session, HP 496878-001 Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah told the delegates that "A constitutional war has been declared on Great Britain. Negotiations for a settlement are not to come from our side ... By appointing an exclusively white Commission, [Secretary of State for India] Lord Birkenhead has declared our unfitness for self-government."[62] HP G72-a20SO Laptop Keyboard
Birkenhead in 1928 challenged Indians to come up with their own proposal for constitutional change for India; in response, the Congress convened a committee under the leadership of Motilal Nehru.[1] HP Pavilion dv5-1220ew Laptop Keyboard
The Nehru Report favoured constituencies based on geography on the ground that being dependent on each other for election would bind the communities closer together. Jinnah, though he believed separate electorates, SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
based on religion, necessary to ensure Muslims had a voice in the government, was willing to compromise on this point, but talks between the two parties failed. He put forth proposals that he hoped might satisfy a broad range of Muslims and reunite the League, HP V061130AS1 Laptop Keyboard
calling for mandatory representation for Muslims in legislatures and cabinets. These became known as his Fourteen Points. He could not secure adoption of the Fourteen Points, as the League meeting in Delhi at which he hoped to gain a vote instead dissolved into chaotic argument.[63] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
After Baldwin was defeated at the 1929 British parliamentary election, Ramsey MacDonald of the Labour Party became prime minister. MacDonald desired a conference of Indian and British leaders in London to discuss India's future, a course of action supported by Jinnah. TOSHIBA Satellite L555-S7929 Laptop Keyboard
Three Round Table Conferences followed over as many years, none of which resulted in a settlement. Jinnah was a delegate to the first two conferences, but was not invited to the last.[64] He remained in Britain for most of the period 1930 through 1934, GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard
practising as a barrister before the Privy Council, where he dealt with a number of Indian-related cases. His biographers disagree over why he remained so long in Britain—Wolpert asserts that had Jinnah been made a Law Lord, he would have stayed for life, and that Jinnah alternatively sought a parliamentary seat.[65][66] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Early biographer Hector Bolitho denied that Jinnah sought to enter the British Parliament,[65] while Jaswant Singh deems Jinnah's time in Britain as a break or sabbatical from the Indian struggle.[67]Bolitho called this period "Jinnah's years of order and contemplation, wedged in between the time of early struggle, and the final storm of conquest".[68] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
In 1931, Fatima Jinnah joined her brother in England. From then on, Muhammad Jinnah would receive personal care and support from her as he aged and began to suffer from the lung ailments which would kill him. TOSHIBA Tecra M10-S3401 Laptop Keyboard
She lived and travelled with him, and became a close advisor. Muhammad Jinnah's daughter, Dina, was educated in England and India. Jinnah later became estranged from Dina after she decided to marry a Christian, Neville Wadia from a prominent Parsi business family.[69] When Jinnah urged Dina to marry a Muslim, HP G62-b40EM Laptop Keyboard
she reminded him that he had married a woman not raised in his faith. Jinnah continued to correspond cordially with his daughter, but their personal relationship was strained, and she did not come to Pakistan in his lifetime, but only for his funeral.[70][71] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
Return to politics
Beginning in 1933, Indian Muslims, especially from the United Provinces, began to urge Jinnah to return to India and take up again his leadership of the Muslim League, an organisation which had fallen into inactivity.[72] SONY VAIO VGN-FW160D Laptop Keyboard
He remained titular president of the League,[f] but declined to travel to India to preside over its 1933 session in April, writing that he could not possibly return there until the end of the year.[73] Among those who met with Jinnah to seek his return was Liaquat Ali Khan, who would be a major political associate of Jinnah in the years to come and the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. TOSHIBA MP-06866GB-6983 laptop keyboard
At Jinnah's request, Liaquat discussed the return with a large number of Muslim politicians and confirmed his recommendation to Jinnah.[74][75] In early 1934, Jinnah relocated to the subcontinent, though he shuttled between London and India on business for the next few years, selling his house in Hampstead and closing his legal practice in Britain.[76][77] SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH laptop keyboard
Muslims of Bombay elected Jinnah, though then absent in London, as their representative to the Central Legislative Assembly in October 1934.[78][79] The British Parliament'sGovernment of India Act 1935 gave considerable power to India's provinces, with a weak central parliament in New Delhi, which had no authority over such matters as foreign policy, HP 622029-001 CPU Fan
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defence, and much of the budget. Full power remained in the hands of the Viceroy, however, who could dissolve legislatures and rule by decree. The League reluctantly accepted the scheme, though expressing reservations about the weak parliament. The Congress was much better prepared for the provincial elections in 1937, Toshiba Satellite P205D-S7454 CPU Fan
and the League failed to win a majority even of the Muslim seats in any of the provinces where members of that faith held a majority. It did win a majority of the Muslim seats in Delhi, but could not form a government anywhere, HP Pavilion dv6-2126eg CPU Fan
though it was part of the ruling coalition in Bengal. The Congress and its allies formed the government even in the North-West Frontier Province(N.W.F.P.), where the League won no seats despite the fact that almost all residents were Muslim.[80] HP Pavilion dv2418ca CPU Fan
According to Singh, "the events of 1937 had a tremendous, almost a traumatic effect upon Jinnah".[81] Despite his beliefs of twenty years that Muslims could protect their rights in a united India through separate electorates, Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan
provincial boundaries drawn to preserve Muslim majorities, and by other protections of minority rights, Muslim voters had failed to unite, with the issues Jinnah hoped to bring forward lost amid factional fighting.[81][82] Singh notes the effect of the 1937 elections on Muslim political opinion, HP 580696-001 CPU Fan
"when the Congress formed a government with almost all of the Muslim MLAs sitting on the Opposition benches, non-Congress Muslims were suddenly faced with this stark reality of near total political powerlessness. Toshiba Satellite M70-204 CPU Fan
It was brought home to them, like a bolt of lightning, that even if the Congress did not win a single Muslim seat ... as long as it won an absolute majority in the House, on the strength of the general seats, it could and would form a government entirely on its own ..."[83] SONY Vaio VGN-TXN25N/B CPU Fan
In the next two years, Jinnah worked to build support among Muslims for the League. He secured the right to speak for the Muslim-led Bengali and Punjabi provincial governments in the central government in New Delhi ("the centre"). He worked to expand the league, reducing the cost of membership to two annas (⅛ of a rupee), HP Pavilion dv7-4053cl CPU Fan
half of what it cost to join the Congress. He restructured the League along the lines of the Congress, putting most power in a Working Committee, which he appointed.[84] By December 1939, Liaquat estimated that the League had three million two-anna members.[85] Dell Latitude E6510 CPU Fan
Until the late 1930s, most Muslims of the British Raj expected, upon independence, to be part of a unitary state encompassing all of British India, as did the Hindus and others who advocated self-government.[86] Despite this, other nationalist proposals were being made. In aspeech given at Allahabad to a League session in 1930, Compaq Presario CQ61-304SL CPU Fan
Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for a state for Muslims in India. Choudhary Rahmat Alipublished a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state "Pakistan" in the Indus Valley, with other names given to Muslim-majority areas elsewhere in India.[87] DELL LATITUDE E4310 Series CPU Fan
Jinnah and Iqbal corresponded in 1936 and 1937; in subsequent years, Jinnah credited Iqbal as his mentor, and used Iqbal's imagery and rhetoric in his speeches.[88]
Although many leaders of the Congress sought a strong central government for an Indian state, some Muslim politicians, including Jinnah, SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
were unwilling to accept this without powerful protections for their community.[86] Other Muslims supported the Congress, which officially advocated a secular state upon independence, though the traditionalist wing (including politicians such as Madan Mohan Malaviya andVallabhbhai Patel) HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
believed that an independent India should enact laws such as banning the killing of cows and making Hindi a national language. The failure of the Congress leadership to disavow Hindu communalists worried Congress-supporting Muslims. Nevertheless, the Congress enjoyed considerable Muslim support up to about 1937.[89] Lenovo 45N2240 Laptop Keyboard
Events which separated the communities included the failed attempt to form a coalition government including the Congress and the League in the United Provinces following the 1937 election.[90] According to historian Ian Talbot, "The provincial Congress governments made no effort to understand and respect their Muslim populations' cultural and religious sensibilities. SONY VAIO VGN-NW25GF laptop keyboard
The Muslim League's claims that it alone could safeguard Muslim interests thus received a major boost. Significantly it was only after this period of Congress rule that it [the League] took up the demand for a Pakistan state ..."[79] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
Balraj Puri in his journal article about Jinnah suggests that the Muslim League president, after the 1937 vote, turned to the idea of partition in "sheer desperation".[91] HistorianAkbar S. Ahmed suggests that Jinnah abandoned hope of reconciliation with the Congress as he "rediscover[ed] his own [Islamic] HP Pavilion dv6-3134nr laptop keyboard
roots, his own sense of identity, of culture and history, which would come increasingly to the fore in the final years of his life".[14] Jinnah also increasingly adopted Muslim dress in the late 1930s.[92] TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5163 laptop keyboard
In the wake of the 1937 balloting, Jinnah demanded that the question of power sharing be settled on an all-India basis, and that he, as president of the League, be accepted as the sole spokesman for the Muslim community.[93] TOSHIBA Tecra M10-S3401 laptop keyboard
Second World War and Lahore Resolution
On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced the commencement of war with Nazi Germany.[94] The following day, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, without consulting Indian political leaders, Toshiba Satellite A300-034 CPU Fan
announced that India had entered the war along with Britain. There were widespread protests in India. After meeting with Jinnah and with Gandhi, Linlithgow announced that negotiations on self-government were suspended for the duration of the war.[95] The Congress on 14 September demanded immediate independence with a constituent assembly to decide a constitution; HP DFS551305MC0T CPU Fan
when this was refused, its eight provincial governments resigned on 10 November and governors in those provinces thereafter ruled by decree for the remainder of the war. Jinnah, on the other hand, was more willing to accommodate the British, and they in turn increasingly recognised him and the League as the representatives of India's Muslims.[96HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
]Jinnah later stated, "after the war began, ... I was treated on the same basis as Mr. Gandhi. I was wonderstruck why I was promoted and given a place side by side with Mr. Gandhi."[97] Although the League did not actively support the British war effort, neither did they try to obstruct it.[98] HP Pavilion dv7-2145eg CPU Fan
With the British and Muslims to some extent cooperating, the Viceroy asked Jinnah for an expression of the Muslim League's position on self-government, confident that it would differ greatly from that of the Congress. HP Pavilion dv7-2230ev CPU Fan
To come up with such a position, the League's Working Committee met for four days in February 1940 to set out terms of reference to a constitutional sub-committee. The Working Committee asked that the sub-committee return with a proposal that would result in "independent dominions in direct relationship with Great Britain" where Muslims were dominant.[99] Compaq Presario CQ70-115EO CPU Fan
On 6 February, Jinnah informed the Viceroy that the Muslim League would be demanding partition instead of the federation contemplated in the 1935 Act. The Lahore Resolution (sometimes called the "Pakistan Resolution", although it does not contain that name), based on the sub-committee's work, embraced the HP Pavilion dv6699eg CPU Fan
Two-Nation Theory and called for a union of the Muslim-majority provinces in the northwest of British India, with complete autonomy. Similar rights were to be granted the Muslim-majority areas in the east, and unspecified protections given to Muslim minorities in other provinces. The resolution was passed by the League session inLahore on 23 March 1940.[100][101] HP Pavilion dv7-4117ez CPU Fan
Gandhi's reaction to the Lahore Resolution was muted; he called it "baffling", but told his disciples that Muslims, in common with other people of India, had the right to self-determination. Leaders of the Congress were more vocal; Jawaharlal Nehru (son of Motilal) referred to Lahore as "Jinnah's fantastic proposals" while Chakravarti Rajagopalachari deemed Jinnah's views on partition "a sign of a diseased mentality".[102] ASUS A8M CPU Fan
Linlithgow met with Jinnah in June 1940,[103] soon after Winston Churchill became the British prime minister, and in August offered both the Congress and the League a deal whereby in exchange for full support for the war, Linlithgow would allow Indian representation on his major war councils. Toshiba Satellite M70-204 CPU Fan
The Viceroy promised a representative body after the war to determine India's future, and that no future settlement would be imposed over the objections of a large part of the population. This was satisfactory to neither the Congress nor the League, HP COMPAQ NX9420 Series CPU Fan
though Jinnah was pleased that the British had moved towards recognising Jinnah as the representative of the Muslim community's interests.[104] Jinnah was reluctant to make specific proposals as to the boundaries of Pakistan, or its relationships with Britain and with the rest of the subcontinent, fearing that any precise plan would divide the League.[105] COMPAQ Presario CQ50-209WM laptop keyboard
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941 brought the United States into the war. In the following months, the Japanese advanced in southeast Asia, and the British Cabinet sent a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps to try to conciliate the Indians and cause them to fully back the war. HP G61-420SS laptop keyboard
Cripps proposed giving some provinces what was dubbed the "local option" to remain outside of an Indian central government either for a period of time or permanently, to become dominions on their own or be part of another confederation. HP Pavilion dv6-3164si laptop keyboard
The Muslim League was far from certain of winning the legislative votes that would be required for mixed provinces such as Bengal and Punjab to secede, and Jinnah rejected the proposals as not sufficiently recognising Pakistan's right to exist. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
The Congress also rejected the Cripps plan, demanding immediate concessions which Cripps was not prepared to give.[106][107] Despite the rejection, Jinnah and the League saw the Cripps proposal as recognising Pakistan in principle.[108] SONY VGN-FE28B laptop keyboard
The Congress followed the failed Cripps mission by demanding, in August 1942, that the British immediately "Quit India", proclaiming a mass campaign of satyagraha until they did. The British promptly arrested most major leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them for the remainder of the war. Gandhi, however, Lenovo 45N2240 laptop keyboard
was placed on house arrest in one of the Aga Khan's palaces prior to his release for health reasons in 1944. With the Congress leaders absent from the political scene, Jinnah warned against the threat of Hindu domination and maintained his Pakistan demand without going into great detail about what that would entail DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Jinnah also worked to increase the League's political control at the provincial level.[109][110] He helped to found the newspaper Dawn in the early 1940s in Delhi; it helped to spread the League's message and eventually became the major English-language newspaper of Pakistan.[111] SONY VAIO VGN-N21M/W laptop keyboard
In September 1944, Jinnah and Gandhi, who had by then been released from his palatial prison, met at the Muslim leader's home onMalabar Hill in Bombay. Two weeks of talks followed, which resulted in no agreement. Jinnah insisted on Pakistan being conceded prior to the British departure, and to come into being immediately on their departure, LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
while Gandhi proposed that plebiscites on partition occur sometime after a united India gained its independence.[112] In early 1945, Liaquat and the Congress leader Bhulabhai Desai met, with Jinnah's approval and agreed that after the war, HP 496878-001 laptop keyboard
the Congress and the League should form an interim government and that the members of the Executive Council of the Viceroy should be nominated by the Congress and the League in equal numbers. When the Congress leadership was released from prison in June 1945, they repudiated the agreement and censured Desai for acting without proper authority.[113] HP G72-a20SO laptop keyboard
Postwar
Field Marshal the Viscount Wavell succeeded Linlithgow as Viceroy in 1943. In June 1945, following the release of the Congress leaders, Wavell called for a conference, and invited the leading figures from the various communities to meet with him at Simla. SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
He proposed a temporary government along the lines which Liaquat and Desai had agreed. However, Wavell was unwilling to guarantee that only the League's candidates would be placed in the seats reserved for Muslims. HP Pavilion DV7-2173cl laptop keyboard
All other invited groups submitted lists of candidates to the Viceroy. Wavell cut the conference short in mid-July without further seeking an agreement; with a British general election imminent, Churchill's government did not feel it could proceed.[114] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The British people returned Clement Attlee and his Labour Party later in July. Attlee and his Secretary of State for India, Lord Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, immediately ordered a review of the Indian situation.[115] SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
Jinnah had no comment on the change of government, but called a meeting of his Working Committee and issued a statement calling for new elections in India. The League held influence at the provincial level in the Muslim-majority states mostly by alliance, and Jinnah believed that, HP G62-b57EE laptop keyboard
given the opportunity, the League would improve its electoral standing and lend added support to his claim to be the sole spokesman for the Muslims. Wavell returned to India in September after consultation with his new masters in London; elections, both for the centre and for the provinces, were announced soon after. SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
The British indicated that formation of a constitution-making body would follow the votes.[116]
The Muslim League declared that they would campaign on a single issue: Pakistan.[117] Speaking in Ahmedabad, Jinnah echoed this, COMPAQ Presario CQ61 Laptop Keyboard
"Pakistan is a matter of life or death for us."[118] In the December 1945 elections for the Constituent Assembly of India, the League won every seat reserved for Muslims. In the provincial elections in January 1946, the League took 75% of the Muslim vote, an increase from 4.4% in 1937.[119] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
According to his biographer Bolitho, "This was Jinnah's glorious hour: his arduous political campaigns, his robust beliefs and claims, were at last justified."[120]Wolpert wrote that the League election showing "appeared to prove the universal appeal of Pakistan among Muslims of the subcontinent".[121] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The Congress dominated the central assembly nevertheless, though it lost four seats from its previous strength.[121]
In February 1946, the British Cabinet resolved to send a delegation to India to negotiate with leaders there. This Cabinet Mission included Cripps and Pethick-Lawrence. HP Pavilion dv5-1030ev laptop keyboard
The highest-level delegation to try to break the deadlock, it arrived in New Delhi in late March. Little negotiation had been done since the previous October because of the elections in India.[122] SONY VAIO VGN-N27GH/B laptop keyboard
The British in May released a plan for a united Indian state comprising substantially autonomous provinces, and called for "groups" of provinces formed on the basis of religion. Matters such as defence, HP G56-128CA laptop keyboard
external relations and communications would be handled by a central authority. Provinces would have the option of leaving the union entirely, and there would be an interim government with representation from the Congress and the League. HP Pavilion dv5-1205eg laptop keyboard
Jinnah and his Working Committee accepted this plan in June, but it fell apart over the question of how many members of the interim government the Congress and the League would have, and over the Congress's desire to include a Muslim member in its representation. SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W laptop keyboard
Before leaving India, the British ministers stated that they intended to inaugurate an interim government even if one of the major groups was unwilling to participate.[123]
The Congress soon joined the new Indian ministry. The League was slower to do so, not entering until October 1946. In agreeing to have the League join the government, SONY VAIO VGN-FS215S laptop keyboard
Jinnah abandoned his demands for parity with the Congress and a veto on matters concerning Muslims. The new ministry met amid a backdrop of rioting, especially in Calcutta.[124] The Congress wanted the Viceroy to immediately summon the constituent assembly and begin the work of writing a constitution, SONY VAIO VGN-N21Z/W laptop keyboard
and felt that the League ministers should either join in the request or resign from the government. Wavell attempted to save the situation by flying leaders such as Jinnah, Liaquat, and Jawaharlal Nehru to London in December 1946. HP COMPAQ NC6120 laptop keyboard
At the end of the talks, participants issued a statement that the constitution would not be forced on any unwilling parts of India.[125] On the way back from London, Jinnah and Liaquat stopped in Cairo for several days of pan-Islamic meetings.[126] TOSHIBA Satellite C650-01T laptop keyboard
ss endorsed the joint statement from the London conference over angry dissent from some elements. The League refused to do so, and took no part in the constitutional discussions.[125] Jinnah had been willing to consider some continued links to Hindustan (as the Hindu-majority HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
state which would be formed on partition was sometimes referred to), such as a joint military or communications. However, by December 1946, he insisted on a fully sovereign Pakistan with dominion status.[127] HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
Following the failure of the London trip, Jinnah was in no hurry to reach an agreement, figuring that time would allow him to gain the undivided provinces of Bengal and Punjab for Pakistan, but these wealthy, populous provinces had sizeable non-Muslim minorities, complicating a settlement.[128] Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard
The Attlee ministry desired a rapid British departure from India, but had little confidence in Wavell to achieve that end. Beginning in December 1946, British officials began looking for a viceregal successor to Wavell, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
and soon fixed onAdmiral Lord Mountbatten of Burma, a war leader popular among Conservatives as the great-grandson of Queen Victoria and among Labour for his political views.[126] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard
Mountbatten and independence
Main article: Partition of India
On 20 February 1947, Attlee announced Mountbatten's appointment, and that Britain would transfer power in India not later than June 1948.[129] Mountbatten took office as Viceroy on 24 March 1947, HP Mini 110-1160SL Laptop Keyboard
two days after his arrival in India.[130] By then, the Congress had come around to the idea of partition. Nehru stated in 1960, "the truth is that we were tired men and we were getting on in years ... The plan for partition offered a way out and we took it."[131] DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard
Leaders of the Congress decided that having loosely tied Muslim-majority provinces as part of a future India was not worth the loss of the powerful government at the centre which they desired.[132] However, the Congress insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent, Bengal and Punjab would have to be divided.[133] Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
Mountbatten had been warned in his briefing papers that Jinnah would be his "toughest customer" who had proved a chronic nuisance because "no one in this country [India] had so far gotten into Jinnah's mind".[134] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
The men met over six days beginning on 5 April. The sessions began lightly when Jinnah, photographed between Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, quipped "A rose between two thorns" which the Viceroy took, perhaps gratuitously, HP HDX18-1200 CTO Laptop Keyboard
as evidence that the Muslim leader had pre-planned his joke, but had expected the vicereine to stand in the middle.[135] Mountbatten was not favourably impressed with Jinnah, repeatedly expressing frustration to his staff about Jinnah's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument.[136] SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in India, they would turn control over to the Congress-dominated constituent assembly, putting Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to win autonomy. He demanded that Mountbatten divide the army prior to independence, DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard
which would take at least a year. Mountbatten had hoped that the post-independence arrangements would include a common defence force, but Jinnah saw it as essential that a sovereign state should have its own forces. Mountbatten met with Liaquat the day of his final session with Jinnah, and concluded, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
as he told Attlee and the Cabinet in May, that "it had become clear that the Muslim League would resort to arms if Pakistan in some form were not conceded."[137][138] The Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of the assembly, which envisioned broad powers for the post-independence central government.[139] HP Pavilion dm1-1030tu Laptop Keyboard
On 2 June, the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders: on 15 August, the British would turn over power to two dominions. The provinces would vote on whether to continue in the existing constituent assembly, or to have a new one, that is, to join Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab would also vote, both on the question of which assembly to join, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
and on partition. A boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces. Plebiscites would take place in the North-West Frontier Province (which did not have a League government despite an overwhelmingly Muslim population), and in the majority-Muslim Sylhet district of Assam, adjacent to eastern Bengal. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
On 3 June, Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Sikh leader Baldev Singh made the formal announcement by radio.[140][141][142] Jinnah concluded his address with "Pakistan zindabad " (Long live Pakistan), which was not in the script.[143] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
In the weeks which followed Punjab and Bengal cast the votes which resulted in partition. Sylhet and the N.W.F.P. voted to cast their lots with Pakistan, a decision joined by the assemblies in Sind and Baluchistan.[142] HP G61-406SA Laptop Keyboard
On 4 July 1947, Liaquat asked Mountbatten on Jinnah's behalf to recommend to the British king, George VI, that Jinnah be appointed Pakistan's first governor-general. This request angered Mountbatten, who had hoped to have that position in both dominions—he would be India's first post-independence governor-general--SONY VAIO VGN-N230FH/W Laptop Keyboard
but Jinnah felt that Mountbatten would be likely to favour the new Hindu-majority state because of his closeness to Nehru. In addition, the governor-general would initially be a powerful figure, and Jinnah did not trust anyone else to take that office. Although the Boundary Commission, led by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe, SONY Vaio VGN-AW31M/H Laptop Keyboard
had not yet reported, there were already massive movements of populations between the nations-to-be, as well as sectarian violence. Jinnah arranged to sell his house in Bombay and procured a new one in Karachi. On 7 August, Jinnah, with his sister and close staff, flew from Delhi to Karachi in Mountbatten's plane, HP Pavilion dv7-6175us CPU Fan
and as the plane taxied, he was heard to murmur, "That's the end of that.".[144][145][146] On 11 August, he presided over the new constituent assembly for Pakistan at Karachi, and addressed them, "You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan ... SONY Vaio VGN-CR42Z/R CPU Fan
You may belong to any religion or caste or creed—that has nothing to do with the business of the State."[147] On 14 August, Pakistan became independent; Jinnah led the celebrations in Karachi. One observer wrote, "here indeed is Pakistan's King Emperor, Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker and Prime Minister concentrated into one formidable Quaid-e-Azam."[148] HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
Governor-General
The Radcliffe Commission, dividing Bengal and Punjab, completed its work and reported to Mountbatten on 12 August; the last Viceroy held the maps until the 17th, not wanting to spoil the independence celebrations in both nations. HP Pavilion dv5-1199ec CPU Fan
There had already been ethnically charged violence and movement of populations; publication of the Radcliffe Line dividing the new nations sparked mass migration, murder, and ethnic cleansing. Many on the "wrong side" of the lines fled or were murdered, HP Pavilion dv2418ca CPU Fan
or murdered others, hoping to make facts on the ground which would reverse the commission's verdict. Radcliffe wrote in his report that he knew that neither side would be happy with his award; he declined his fee for the work.[149] HP MCF-811AM05 CPU Fan
Christopher Beaumont, Radcliffe's private secretary, later wrote that Mountbatten "must take the blame—though not the sole blame—for the massacres in the Punjab in which between 500,000 to a million men, women and children perished".[150] ACER B0506PGV1-8A CPU Fan
As many as 14,500,000 people relocated between India and Pakistan during and after partition.[150]Jinnah did what he could for the eight million people who migrated to Pakistan; although by now over 70 and frail from lung ailments, he travelled across West Pakistan and personally supervised the provision of aid.[151] DELL DC28A00141L CPU Fan
According to Ahmed, "What Pakistan needed desperately in those early months was a symbol of the state, one that would unify people and give them the courage and resolve to succeed."[152]
Along with Liaquat and Abdur Rab Nishtar, Jinnah represented Pakistan's interests in the Division Council to appropriately divide public assets between India and Pakistan.[153] HP 535439-001 CPU Fan
Pakistan was supposed to receive one-sixth of the pre-independence government's assets, carefully divided by agreement, even specifying how many sheets of paper each side would receive. The new Indian state, however, was slow to deliver, hoping for the collapse of the nascent Pakistani government, HP Pavilion dv5-1190eh CPU Fan
and reunion. Few members of the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service had chosen Pakistan, resulting in staff shortages. Crop growers found their markets on the other side of an international border. HP 640892-001 Laptop Keyboard
There were shortages of machinery, not all of which was made in Pakistan. In addition to the massive refugee problem, the new government sought to save abandoned crops, establish security in a chaotic situation, and provide basic services. Lenovo 0A62039 Laptop Keyboard
According to economist Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin in her study of Pakistan, "although Pakistan was born in bloodshed and turmoil, it survived in the initial and difficult months after partition only because of the tremendous sacrifices made by its people and the selfless efforts of its great leader."[154] HP NSK-H7A01 Laptop Keyboard
The Indian Princely States, of which there were several hundred, were advised by the departing British to choose whether to join Pakistan or India. Most did so prior to independence, but the holdouts contributed to what have become lasting divisions between the two nations.[155] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Indian leaders were angered at Jinnah's courting the princes of Jodhpur, Bhopal and Indore to accede to Pakistan—these princely states did not border Pakistan, and each had a Hindu-majority population.[156] SONY VAIO VGN-CS17G/Q laptop keyboard
The coastal princely state of Junagadh, which had a majority-Hindu population, did accede to Pakistan in September 1947, with its ruler's dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, personally delivering the accession papers to Jinnah. SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
The Indian army occupied the principality in November, forcing its former leaders, including Bhutto, to flee to Pakistan, beginning the politically powerful Bhutto family.[157]
The most contentious of the disputes was, and continues to be, that over the princely state of Kashmir. It had a Muslim-majority population and a Hindu maharaja, IBM Thinkpad T30 Series CPU Fan
Sir Hari Singh, who stalled his decision on which nation to join. With the population in revolt in October 1947, aided by Pakistani irregulars, the maharaja acceded to India; Indian troops were airlifted in. Jinnah objected to this action, and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir. HP Pavilion dv5218nr CPU Fan
The Pakistani Army was still commanded by British officers, and the commanding officer, General Sir Douglas Gracey, refused the order, stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of another nation without approval from higher authority, which was not forthcoming. Jinnah withdrew the order. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ2XP/C CPU Fan
This did not stop the violence there, which has broken into war between India and Pakistan from time to time since.[155][158]
Some historians allege that Jinnah's courting the rulers of Hindu-majority states and his gambit with Junagadh are evidence of ill-intent towards India, DELL Studio 1536 Series CPU Fan
as Jinnah had promoted separation by religion, yet tried to gain the accession of Hindu-majority states.[159] In his book Patel: A Life, Rajmohan Gandhi asserts that Jinnah hoped for a plebiscite in Junagadh, knowing Pakistan would lose, SONY UDQF2PH52CF0 CPU Fan
in the hope the principle would be established for Kashmir.[160] Despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 issued at India's request for a plebiscite in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistani forces, this has never occurred.[158] DELL Precision M90 CPU Fan
In January 1948, the Indian government finally agreed to pay Pakistan its share of British India's assets. They were impelled by Gandhi, who threatened a fast until death. Only days later, Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who believed that Gandhi was pro-Muslim. Jinnah made a brief statement of condolence, calling Gandhi "one of the greatest men produced by the Hindu community".[161] SONY Vaio VPC-EB1E0E CPU Fan
In March, Jinnah, despite his declining health, made his only post-independence visit to East Pakistan. In a speech before a crowd estimated at 300,000, Jinnah stated (in English) that Urdu alone should be the national language, believing a single language was needed for a nation to remain united. HP Pavilion tx2590eo CPU Fan
The Bengali-speaking people of East Pakistan strongly opposed this policy, and in 1971 the official language issue was a factor in the region's secession to form Bangladesh.[162]
After the establishment of Pakistan, Pakistani currency notes had the image of George V printed on them. These notes were in circulation till 30 June, 1949. But on 1 April, 1949, ACER TravelMate 5230 Series CPU Fan
these notes were stamped with "Government of Pakistan" and were used as legal tenders. On the same day, the then Finance Minister of Pakistan, Malik Ghulam Muhammad, presented a new set of seven coins (Re. 1, ₨. 1⁄2, ₨. 1⁄4, A. 2, A. 1, A. 1⁄2 and Pe. 1) HP Pavilion dv7t-6100 CTO CPU Fan
to Jinnah in the Governor House and were issued as the first coins minted by the Government of Pakistan.
From the 1930s, Jinnah suffered from tuberculosis; only his sister and a few others close to him were aware of his condition. Jinnah believed public knowledge of his lung ailments would hurt him politically. In a 1938 letter, IBM Thinkpad R30 2657-82A CPU Fan
he wrote to a supporter that "you must have read in the papers how during my tours ... I suffered, which was not because there was anything wrong with me, but the irregularities [of the schedule] and over-strain told upon my health".[163][164] HP Pavilion DV7-3100 Series CPU Fan
Many years later, Mountbatten stated that if he had known Jinnah was so ill, he would have stalled, hoping Jinnah's death would avert partition.[165] Fatima Jinnah later wrote, "even in his hour of triumph, the Quaid-e-Azam was gravely ill ... Toshiba Satellite A215-S7444 CPU Fan
He worked in a frenzy to consolidate Pakistan. And, of course, he totally neglected his health ..."[166] Jinnah worked with a tin of Craven "A" cigarettes at his desk, of which he had smoked 50 or more a day for the previous 30 years, as well as a box of Cuban cigars. He took longer and longer rest breaks in the private wing of Government House in Karachi, where only he, Fatima and the servants were allowed.[167] MSI Wind U130 CPU Fan
In June 1948, he and Fatima flew to Quetta, in the mountains of Baluchistan, where the weather was cooler than in Karachi. He could not completely rest there, addressing the officers at the Command and Staff College saying, MSI Wind U130 CPU Fan
"you, along with the other Forces of Pakistan, are the custodians of the life, property and honour of the people of Pakistan."[168] He returned to Karachi for the 1 July opening ceremony for the State Bank of Pakistan, at which he spoke; a reception by the Canadian trade commissioner that evening in honour of Dominion Day was the last public event he ever attended.[169] HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
On 6 July 1948, Jinnah returned to Quetta, but at the advice of doctors, soon journeyed to an even higher retreat at Ziarat. Jinnah had always been reluctant to undergo medical treatment, but realising his condition, HP 9J.NOL82.W01 laptop keyboard
the Pakistani government sent the best doctors it could find to treat him. Tests confirmed tuberculosis, and showed evidence of lung cancer. Jinnah was informed, and asked for full information on his disease and for care in how his sister was told. He was treated with the new "miracle drug" of streptomycin, TOSHIBA V-0522BIAS1-US laptop keyboard
but it did not help. Jinnah's condition continued to deteriorate despite the Eid prayers of his people. He was moved to the lower altitude of Quetta on 13 August, the eve of Independence Day, for which a statement ghost-written for him was released. Despite an increase in appetite (he then weighed just over 36 kilograms [79 lb]) HP 9J.NOL82.W01 laptop keyboard
, it was clear to his doctors that if he was to return to Karachi in life, he would have to do so very soon. Jinnah, however, was reluctant to go, not wishing his aides to see him as an invalid on a stretcher.[170] SONY VAIO VGN NR220E laptop keyboard
By 9 September, Jinnah had also developed pneumonia. Doctors urged him to return to Karachi, where he could receive better care, and with his agreement, he was flown there on 11 September. Dr. Ilahi Bux, his personal physician, DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
believed that Jinnah's change of mind was caused by foreknowledge of death. The plane landed at Karachi, to be met by Jinnah's limousine, and an ambulance into which Jinnah's stretcher was placed. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
The ambulance broke down on the road into town, and the Governor-General and those with him waited for another to arrive; he could not be placed in the car as he could not sit up. They waited by the roadside in oppressive heat as trucks and buses passed by, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
unsuitable for transporting the dying man and with their occupants not knowing of Jinnah's presence. After an hour, the replacement ambulance came, and transported Jinnah to Government House, arriving there over two hours after the landing. Jinnah died at 10:20 pm at his home in Karachi on 11 September 1948, just over a year after Pakistan's creation.[171][172] HP Pavilion dv6-3043tx laptop keyboard
Indian Prime Minister Nehru stated upon Jinnah's death, "How shall we judge him? I have been very angry with him often during the past years. But now there is no bitterness in my thought of him, only a great sadness for all that has been ... he succeeded in his quest and gained his objective, HP Pavilion dv6-2159tx laptop keyboard
but at what a cost and with what a difference from what he had imagined."[173] Jinnah was buried on 12 September 1948 amid official mourning in both India and Pakistan; a million people gathered for his funeral. Indian Governor-General Rajagopalachari cancelled an official reception that day, in honour of the late leader. Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
Today, Jinnah rests in a large marble mausoleum, Mazar-e-Quaid, in Karachi.[174][175][176]
Aftermath
Dina Wadia, Jinnah's daughter, remained in India after independence before ultimately settling in New York City. In the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah, TOSHIBA Qosmio F40/88EBL laptop keyboard
by then known as Madar-e-Millat ("Mother of the Nation"), became the presidential candidate of a coalition of political parties that opposed the rule of President Ayub Khan, but was not successful.[177] DELL 0454RX laptop keyboard
The Jinnah House in Malabar Hill, Bombay, is in the possession of the Government of India, but the issue of its ownership has been disputed by the Government of Pakistan.[178] Jinnah had personally requested Prime Minister Nehru to preserve the house, hoping one day he could return to Mumbai. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
There are proposals for the house be offered to the government of Pakistan to establish a consulate in the city as a goodwill gesture, but Dina Wadia has also asked for the property.[178][179] HP G61-406SA laptop keyboard
After Jinnah died, his sister Fatima asked the court to execute Jinnah's will under Shia Islamic law.[180] This subsequently became the part of argument in Pakistan about Jinnah's religious affiliation. Vali Nasr says Jinnah "was an Ismaili by birth and a Twelver Shia by confession, though not a religiously observant man."[181] ASUS A3Hf Laptop Keyboard
In a 1970 legal challenge, Hussain Ali Ganji Walji claimed Jinnah had converted to Sunni Islam, but the High Court rejected this claim in 1976, effectively accepting the Jinnah family as Shia.[182] Publicly, Jinnah had a non-sectarian stance and "was at pains to gather the Muslims of India under the banner of a general Muslim faith and not under a divisive sectarian identity."[180] SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard
In 1970, a Pakistani court decision stated that Jinnah's "secular Muslim faith made him neither Shia nor Sunni",[180] and in 1984 the court maintained that "the Quaidwas definitely not a Shia".[180] Liaquat H. Merchant elaborates that "he was also not a Sunni, he was simply a Muslim".[180]Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
Muhammad Ali Jinnah[a] ( Audio (help•info), born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai; 25 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was alawyer, politician, and the founder of Pakistan.[1] Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistan's independence on 14 August 1947, and as Pakistan's first Governor-General from independence until his death. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
He is revered in Pakistan as Quaid-i-Azam[b] (Great Leader) and Baba-i-Qaum[c] (Father of the Nation). His birthday is observed as a national holiday.[2][3]
Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard
In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu–Muslim unity, helping to shape the 1916 Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the All-India Muslim League, a party in which Jinnah had also become prominent. HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen-point constitutional reform planto safeguard the political rights of Muslims should a united British India become independent. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 Laptop Keyboard
In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha, or non-violent resistance, advocated by the influential leader,Mohandas Gandhi.
By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state. In that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, SONY VAIO PCG-F23 Laptop Keyboard
passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation. During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned, and in the elections held shortly after the war, HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims. Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power-sharing formula for a united India, leading all parties to agree to separate independence for a predominately Hindu India, and for a Muslim-majority state, to be called Pakistan. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
As the first Governor-General of Pakistan, Jinnah worked to establish the new nation's government and policies, and to aid the millions of Muslim migrants who had emigrated from the new nation of India to Pakistan after the partition, personally supervising the establishment of refugee camps. Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the British Raj. He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan, though he is less well thought of in India. According to his biographer, Stanley Wolpert, he remains Pakistan's greatest leader. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah was born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai,[d] most likely in 1876,[e] to Jinnahbhai Poonja and his wife Mithibai, in a rented apartment on the second floor of Wazir Mansion, Karachi.[4] Jinnah's birthplace is in Sindh, a region today part of Pakistan, but then within theBombay Presidency of British India. Lenovo Ideapad Y410 Laptop Keyboard
His father was a prosperous Gujarati merchant who had been born to a family of weavers in the village of Paneli in the princely state of Gondal; his mother was also of that village. They had moved to Karachi about 1875, HP AELX9U00210 Laptop Keyboard
having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying an economic boom: the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay.[5][6] Compaq Presario CQ71-410ED Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah's family was of the Ismaili Khoja branch of Shi'a Islam,[7] though Jinnah later followed the Twelver Shi'a teachings.[8] Jinnah was the second child;[9][10] he had three brothers and three sisters, including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the children also came to speak Kutchi, Sindhi and English.[11] Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal or political careers.[12] DELL 5HK36 Laptop Keyboard
As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Gokal Das Tej Primary School there, later on studying at the Cathedral and John Connon School. In Karachi, he attended the Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School.[13][14] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school. In his later years and especially after his death, a large number of stories about the boyhood of Pakistan's founder were circulated: that he spent all his spare time at the police court, listening to the proceedings, TOSHIBA NB200 Laptop Keyboard
and that he studied his books by the glow of street lights for lack of other illumination. His official biographer, Hector Bolitho, writing in 1954, interviewed surviving boyhood associates, and obtained a tale that the young Jinnah discouraged other children from playing marbles in the dust, urging them to rise up, keep their hands and clothes clean, and play cricket instead.[15] HP 580696-001 CPU Fan
In 1892, Sir Frederick Leigh Croft, a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poonja, offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm,Graham's Shipping and Trading Company.[16] He accepted the position despite the opposition of his mother, who before he left, had him enter an arranged marriage with a girl two years his junior from the ancestral village of Paneli, Emibai Jinnah. HP COMPAQ KSB05105HA CPU Fan
Jinnah's mother and first wife both died during his absence in England.[17] Although the apprenticeship in London was considered a great opportunity for Jinnah, one reason for sending him overseas was a legal proceeding against his father, which placed the family's property at risk of being sequestered by the court. HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
In 1893, the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay.[13]
Soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law, enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three years. The aspiring barrister joined Lincoln's Inn, HP 486799-001 CPU Fan
later stating that the reason he chose Lincoln's over the other Inns of Court was that over the main entrance to Lincoln's Inn were the names of the world's great lawgivers, including Muhammad. Jinnah's biographer Stanley Wolpert notes that there is no such inscription, HP 540 CPU Fan
but instead inside is a mural showing Muhammad and other lawgivers, and speculates that Jinnah may have edited the story in his own mind to avoid mentioning a pictorial depiction which would be offensive to many Muslims.[18] DELL GB0506PGV1-8A CPU Fan
Jinnah's legal education at the Inns of Court followed the apprenticeship system, which had been in force there for centuries. To gain knowledge of the law, he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did, as well as from studying lawbooks.[19] During this period, he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah.[20] HP Pavilion dv9016ea CPU Fan
During his student years in England, Jinnah was influenced by 19th-century British liberalism, like many other future Indian independence leaders. This political education included exposure to the idea of the democratic nation, and progressive politics.[21] Dell Vostro 3350 CPU Fan
He became an admirer of the Parsi Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Naoroji had become the first Member of Parliament of Indian extraction shortly before Jinnah's arrival, triumphing with a majority of three votes in Finsbury Central. Jinnah listened to his maiden speech in the House of Commons from the visitor's gallery.[22][23] SONY Vaio VGN-FS415M CPU Fan
The Western world not only inspired Jinnah in his political life, but also greatly influenced his personal preferences, particularly when it came to dress. Jinnah abandoned Indian garb for Western-style clothing, and throughout his life he was always impeccably dressed in public. He came to own over 200 suits, which he wore with heavily starched shirts with detachable collars, Compaq Presario CQ61-324EZ CPU Fan
and as a barrister took pride in never wearing the same silk tie twice.[24] Even when he was dying, he insisted on being formally dressed, "I will not travel in my pyjamas."[12] In his later years he was usually seen wearing a Karakul hat which subsequently came to be known as the "Jinnah cap".[25] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Dissatisfied with the law, Jinnah briefly embarked on a stage career with a Shakespearean company, but resigned after receiving a stern letter from his father.[26] In 1895, at age 19, he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England.[10] Although he returned to Karachi, he remained there only a short time before moving to Bombay.[26] HP Mini 110-1131DX Laptop Keyboard
Aged twenty, Jinnah began his practice in Bombay, the only Muslim barrister in the city.[10] English had become his principal language and would remain so throughout his life. His first three years in the law, from 1897 to 1900, brought him few briefs. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
His first step towards a brighter career occurred when the acting Advocate General of Bombay, John Molesworth MacPherson, invited Jinnah to work from his chambers.[27][28] In 1900, P. H. Dastoor, a Bombay presidency magistrate, SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
left the post temporarily and Jinnah succeeded in getting the interim position. After his six-month appointment period, Jinnah was offered a permanent position on a 1,500 rupee per month salary. Jinnah politely declined the offer, stating that he planned to earn 1,500 rupees a day—a huge sum at that time—which he eventually did.[27][28][29] ACER TravelMate 3270 laptop keyboard
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Nevertheless, as Governor-General of Pakistan, he would refuse to accept a large salary, fixing it at 1 rupee per month.[30]
As a lawyer, Jinnah gained fame for his skilled handling of the 1907 "Caucus Case". This controversy arose out of Bombay municipal elections, which Indians alleged were rigged by a "caucus" of Europeans to keep Sir Pherozeshah Mehta out of the council. Jinnah gained great esteem from leading the case for Sir Pherozeshah, Toshiba MF60120V1-B100-G99 CPU Fan
himself a noted barrister. Although Jinnah did not win the Caucus Case, he posted a successful record, becoming well known for his advocacy and legal logic.[31][32] In 1908, his factional foe in the Indian National Congress, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, HP Mini 110-1110ET CPU Fan
was arrested for sedition. Before Tilak unsuccessfully represented himself at trial, he engaged Jinnah in an attempt to secure his release on bail. Jinnah did not succeed, but obtained an acquittal for Tilak when he was charged with sedition again in 1916.[33] HP 489126-001 CPU Fan
One of Jinnah's fellow barristers from the Bombay High Court remembered that "Jinnah's faith in himself was incredible"; he recalled that on being admonished by a judge with "Mr. Jinnah, remember that you are not addressing a third-class magistrate"HP Pavilion dv6-3040sl CPU Fan
Jinnah shot back "My Lord, allow me to warn you that you are not addressing a third-class pleader."[34]Another of his fellow barristers described him:
He was what God made him, a great pleader. He had a sixth sense: he could see around corners. That is where his talents lay ... he was a very clear thinker ... But he drove his points home—points chosen with exquisite selection—slow delivery, word by word.[31][35] Toshiba Satellite L555D-S7005 CPU Fan
In 1857, many Indians had risen in revolt against British rule. In the aftermath of the conflict, some Anglo-Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self-government for the subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Most founding members had been educated in Britain, Dell Studio XPS 1645 CPU Fan
and were content with the minimal reform efforts being made by the government.[36] Muslims were not enthusiastic about calls for democratic institutions in British India, as they constituted a quarter to a third of the population, outnumbered by the Hindus.[37]Early meetings of the Congress contained a minority of Muslims, mostly from the elite.[38] HP Pavilion dv6-3278ca CPU Fan
In 1857, many Indians had risen in revolt against British rule. In the aftermath of the conflict, some Anglo-Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self-government for the subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Most founding members had been educated in Britain, HP Pavilion dv5247eu CPU Fan
and were content with the minimal reform efforts being made by the government.[36] Muslims were not enthusiastic about calls for democratic institutions in British India, as they constituted a quarter to a third of the population, outnumbered by the Hindus.[37]Early meetings of the Congress contained a minority of Muslims, mostly from the elite.[38] HP Pavilion dv7-6013eg CPU Fan
Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress's twentieth annual meeting, in Bombay in December 1904.[39] He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu–Muslim unity in achieving self-government, and following such leaders as Mehta, Naoroji, andGopal Krishna Gokhale.[40] ACER Travelmate 8104WLMI CPU Fan
They were opposed by leaders such as Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai, who sought quick action towards freedom.[41] In 1906, a delegation of Muslim leaders headed by the Aga Khan called on the new Viceroy of India, Lord Minto, to assure him of their loyalty and to ask for assurances that in any political reforms they would be protected from the "unsympathetic [Hindu] majority".[42] SONY Vaio VGN-NR120Q CPU Fan
Dissatisfied with this, Jinnah wrote a letter to the editor of the newspaper Gujarati, asking what right the members of the delegation had to speak for Indian Muslims, as they were unelected and self-appointed.[40] HP Pavilion dv7-6187cl CPU Fan
When many of the same leaders met in Dacca in December of that year to form the All-India Muslim Leagueto advocate for their community's interests, Jinnah was again opposed. The Aga Khan later wrote that it was "freakishly ironic" that Jinnah, who would lead the League to independence, "ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 laptop keyboard
came out in bitter hostility toward all that I and my friends had done ... He said that our principle of separate electorates was dividing the nation against itself."[43] In its earliest years, however, the League was not influential; Minto refused to consider it as the Muslim community's representative, and it was ineffective in preventing the 1911 repeal of the partition of Bengal, an action seen as a blow to Muslim interests.[44] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 laptop keyboard
Although Jinnah initially opposed separate electorates for Muslims, he used this means to gain his first elective office in 1909, as Bombay's Muslim representative on the Imperial Legislative Council. He was a compromise candidate when two older, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
better-known Muslims who were seeking the post deadlocked. The council, which had been expanded to 60 members as part of reforms enacted by Minto, recommended legislation to the Viceroy. Only officials could vote in the council; non-official members, such as Jinnah, had no vote. Throughout his legal career, SONY VAIO PCG-F23 laptop keyboard
Jinnah practised probate law (with many clients from India's nobility), and in 1911 introduced the Wakf Validation Act to place Muslim religious trusts on a sound legal footing under British Indian law. Two years later, the measure passed, the first act sponsored by non-officials to pass the council and be enacted by the Viceroy.[45] HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
[46] Jinnah was also appointed to a committee which helped to establish the Indian Military Academy in Dehra Dun.[47]
In December 1912, Jinnah addressed the annual meeting of the Muslim League, although he was not yet a member. SONY VAIO VGN-CS190* laptop keyboard
He joined the following year, although he remained a member of the Congress as well and stressed that League membership took second priority to the "greater national cause" of a free India. In April 1913, he again went to Britain, with Gokhale, to meet with officials on behalf of the Congress. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ52B laptop keyboard
Gokhale, a Hindu, later stated that Jinnah "has true stuff in him, and that freedom from all sectarian prejudice which will make him the best ambassador of Hindu–Muslim Unity".[48] Jinnah led another delegation of the Congress to London in 1914, but due to the start of the First World War found officials little interested in Indian reforms. SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
By coincidence, he was in Britain at the same time as a man who would become a great political rival of his, Mohandas Gandhi, a Hindu lawyer who had become well known for advocating satyagraha, non-violent non-cooperation, while in South Africa. Jinnah attended a reception for Gandhi, and returned home to India in January 1915.[49] HP Pavilion DV7-3063cl laptop keyboard
Break from the Congress
Jinnah's moderate faction in the Congress was undermined by the deaths of Mehta and Gokhale in 1915; he was further isolated by the fact that Naoroji was in London, where he remained until his death in 1917. Nevertheless, Jinnah worked to bring the Congress and League together. In 1916, Compaq Presario CQ71-220EF laptop keyboard
with Jinnah now president of the Muslim League, the two organisations signed the Lucknow Pact, setting quotas for Muslim and Hindu representation in the various provinces. Although the pact was never fully implemented, its signing ushered in a period of cooperation between the Congress and the League.[50][38] HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
During the war, Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort, hoping that Indians would be rewarded with political freedoms. Jinnah played an important role in the founding of the All India Home Rule League in 1916. HP G62-a20SQ laptop keyboard
Along with political leaders Annie Besant and Tilak, Jinnah demanded "home rule" for India—the status of a self-governing dominion in the Empire similar to Canada, New Zealand and Australia, although, with the war, DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard
Britain's politicians were not interested in considering Indian constitutional reform. British Cabinet minister Edwin Montagu recalled Jinnah in his memoirs, "young, perfectly mannered, impressive-looking, armed to the teeth with dialectics, and insistent on the whole of his scheme".[51] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
In 1918, Jinnah married his second wife Rattanbai Petit ("Ruttie"), 24 years his junior. She was the fashionable young daughter of his friend Sir Dinshaw Petit, of an elite Parsifamily of Bombay.[21] SONY 147977821 laptop keyboard
There was great opposition to the marriage from Rattanbai's family and the Parsi community, as well as from some Muslim religious leaders. Rattanbai defied her family and nominally converted to Islam, adopting (though never using) the name Maryam Jinnah, resulting in a permanent estrangement from her family and Parsi society. HP Pavilion DV8210US laptop keyboard
The couple resided in Bombay, and frequently travelled across India and Europe. The couple's only child, daughter Dina Jinnah, was born on 15 August 1919.[21][52] The couple separated prior to Ruttie's death in 1929, and subsequently Jinnah's sister Fatima looked after him and his child.[53] HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
Relations between Indians and British were strained in 1919 when the Imperial Legislative Council extended emergency wartime restrictions on civil liberties; Jinnah resigned from it when it did. There was unrest across India, which worsened after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, in which British troops fired upon a protest meeting, DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
killing hundreds. In the wake of Amritsar, Gandhi, who had returned to India and become a widely respected leader and highly influential in the Congress, called for satyagraha against the British. Gandhi's proposal gained broad Hindu support, and was also attractive to many Muslims of the Khilafat faction. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
These Muslims, supported by Gandhi, sought retention of the Uthman caliphate, which supplied spiritual leadership to many Muslims. The caliph was the Ottoman Emperor, who would be deprived of both offices following his nation's defeat in the First World War. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
Gandhi had achieved considerable popularity among Muslims because of his work during the war on behalf of killed or imprisoned Muslims.[54][55][56] Unlike Jinnah and other leaders of the Congress, Gandhi did not wear western-style clothing, did his best to use an Indian language instead of English, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
and was deeply rooted in Indian culture. Gandhi's local style of leadership gained great popularity with the Indian people. Jinnah criticised Gandhi's Khilafat advocacy, which he saw as an endorsement of religious zealotry.[57] TOSHIBA H000006820 laptop keyboard
Jinnah regarded Gandhi's proposed satyagraha campaign as political anarchy, and believed that self-government should be secured through constitutional means. He opposed Gandhi, but the tide of Indian opinion was against him. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
At the 1920 session of the Congress in Nagpur, Jinnah was shouted down by the delegates, who passed Gandhi's proposal, pledging satyagraha until India was free. Jinnah did not attend the subsequent League meeting, HP Pavilion DV6-1351nr laptop keyboard
held in the same city, which passed a similar resolution. Because of the action of the Congress in endorsing Gandhi's campaign, Jinnah resigned from it, leaving all positions except in the Muslim League.[58][59] SONY VAIO VGN-AR720E/B laptop keyboard
Wilderness years; interlude in England
Jinnah devoted much of his time to his law practice in the early 1920s, but remained politically involved. The alliance between Gandhi and the Khilafat faction did not last long, and the campaign of resistance proved less effective than hoped, as India's institutions continued to function. Jinnah sought alternative political ideas, SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
and contemplated organising a new political party as a rival to the Congress. In September 1923, Jinnah was elected as Muslim member for Bombay in the new Central Legislative Assembly. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
In 1925, as recognition for his legislative activities, he was offered a knighthood by Lord Reading, who was retiring from the Viceroyalty. He replied: "I prefer to be plain Mr. Jinnah."[60]
In 1927, the British Government, under Conservative Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, SONY KFRSBA019A laptop keyboard
undertook a decennial review of Indian policy mandated by the Government of India Act 1919. The review began two years early as Baldwin feared he would lose the next election (which he did, in 1929). The Cabinet was influenced by minister Winston Churchill, who strongly opposed self-government for India, HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
and members hoped that by having the commission appointed early, the policies for India which they favoured would survive their government. The resulting commission, led by Liberal MP John Simon, though with a majority of Conservatives, ACER Extensa 7720 laptop keyboard
arrived in India in March 1928.[61] They were met with a boycott by India's leaders, Muslim and Hindu alike, angered at the British refusal to include their representatives on the commission. A minority of Muslims, though, withdrew from the League, choosing to welcome the Simon Commission and repudiating Jinnah. SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
Most members of the League's executive council remained loyal to Jinnah, attending the League meeting in December 1927 and January 1928 which confirmed him as the League's permanent president. At that session, HP 496878-001 Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah told the delegates that "A constitutional war has been declared on Great Britain. Negotiations for a settlement are not to come from our side ... By appointing an exclusively white Commission, [Secretary of State for India] Lord Birkenhead has declared our unfitness for self-government."[62] HP G72-a20SO Laptop Keyboard
Birkenhead in 1928 challenged Indians to come up with their own proposal for constitutional change for India; in response, the Congress convened a committee under the leadership of Motilal Nehru.[1] HP Pavilion dv5-1220ew Laptop Keyboard
The Nehru Report favoured constituencies based on geography on the ground that being dependent on each other for election would bind the communities closer together. Jinnah, though he believed separate electorates, SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
based on religion, necessary to ensure Muslims had a voice in the government, was willing to compromise on this point, but talks between the two parties failed. He put forth proposals that he hoped might satisfy a broad range of Muslims and reunite the League, HP V061130AS1 Laptop Keyboard
calling for mandatory representation for Muslims in legislatures and cabinets. These became known as his Fourteen Points. He could not secure adoption of the Fourteen Points, as the League meeting in Delhi at which he hoped to gain a vote instead dissolved into chaotic argument.[63] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
After Baldwin was defeated at the 1929 British parliamentary election, Ramsey MacDonald of the Labour Party became prime minister. MacDonald desired a conference of Indian and British leaders in London to discuss India's future, a course of action supported by Jinnah. TOSHIBA Satellite L555-S7929 Laptop Keyboard
Three Round Table Conferences followed over as many years, none of which resulted in a settlement. Jinnah was a delegate to the first two conferences, but was not invited to the last.[64] He remained in Britain for most of the period 1930 through 1934, GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard
practising as a barrister before the Privy Council, where he dealt with a number of Indian-related cases. His biographers disagree over why he remained so long in Britain—Wolpert asserts that had Jinnah been made a Law Lord, he would have stayed for life, and that Jinnah alternatively sought a parliamentary seat.[65][66] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Early biographer Hector Bolitho denied that Jinnah sought to enter the British Parliament,[65] while Jaswant Singh deems Jinnah's time in Britain as a break or sabbatical from the Indian struggle.[67]Bolitho called this period "Jinnah's years of order and contemplation, wedged in between the time of early struggle, and the final storm of conquest".[68] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
In 1931, Fatima Jinnah joined her brother in England. From then on, Muhammad Jinnah would receive personal care and support from her as he aged and began to suffer from the lung ailments which would kill him. TOSHIBA Tecra M10-S3401 Laptop Keyboard
She lived and travelled with him, and became a close advisor. Muhammad Jinnah's daughter, Dina, was educated in England and India. Jinnah later became estranged from Dina after she decided to marry a Christian, Neville Wadia from a prominent Parsi business family.[69] When Jinnah urged Dina to marry a Muslim, HP G62-b40EM Laptop Keyboard
she reminded him that he had married a woman not raised in his faith. Jinnah continued to correspond cordially with his daughter, but their personal relationship was strained, and she did not come to Pakistan in his lifetime, but only for his funeral.[70][71] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
Return to politics
Beginning in 1933, Indian Muslims, especially from the United Provinces, began to urge Jinnah to return to India and take up again his leadership of the Muslim League, an organisation which had fallen into inactivity.[72] SONY VAIO VGN-FW160D Laptop Keyboard
He remained titular president of the League,[f] but declined to travel to India to preside over its 1933 session in April, writing that he could not possibly return there until the end of the year.[73] Among those who met with Jinnah to seek his return was Liaquat Ali Khan, who would be a major political associate of Jinnah in the years to come and the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. TOSHIBA MP-06866GB-6983 laptop keyboard
At Jinnah's request, Liaquat discussed the return with a large number of Muslim politicians and confirmed his recommendation to Jinnah.[74][75] In early 1934, Jinnah relocated to the subcontinent, though he shuttled between London and India on business for the next few years, selling his house in Hampstead and closing his legal practice in Britain.[76][77] SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH laptop keyboard
Muslims of Bombay elected Jinnah, though then absent in London, as their representative to the Central Legislative Assembly in October 1934.[78][79] The British Parliament'sGovernment of India Act 1935 gave considerable power to India's provinces, with a weak central parliament in New Delhi, which had no authority over such matters as foreign policy, HP 622029-001 CPU Fan
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defence, and much of the budget. Full power remained in the hands of the Viceroy, however, who could dissolve legislatures and rule by decree. The League reluctantly accepted the scheme, though expressing reservations about the weak parliament. The Congress was much better prepared for the provincial elections in 1937, Toshiba Satellite P205D-S7454 CPU Fan
and the League failed to win a majority even of the Muslim seats in any of the provinces where members of that faith held a majority. It did win a majority of the Muslim seats in Delhi, but could not form a government anywhere, HP Pavilion dv6-2126eg CPU Fan
though it was part of the ruling coalition in Bengal. The Congress and its allies formed the government even in the North-West Frontier Province(N.W.F.P.), where the League won no seats despite the fact that almost all residents were Muslim.[80] HP Pavilion dv2418ca CPU Fan
According to Singh, "the events of 1937 had a tremendous, almost a traumatic effect upon Jinnah".[81] Despite his beliefs of twenty years that Muslims could protect their rights in a united India through separate electorates, Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan
provincial boundaries drawn to preserve Muslim majorities, and by other protections of minority rights, Muslim voters had failed to unite, with the issues Jinnah hoped to bring forward lost amid factional fighting.[81][82] Singh notes the effect of the 1937 elections on Muslim political opinion, HP 580696-001 CPU Fan
"when the Congress formed a government with almost all of the Muslim MLAs sitting on the Opposition benches, non-Congress Muslims were suddenly faced with this stark reality of near total political powerlessness. Toshiba Satellite M70-204 CPU Fan
It was brought home to them, like a bolt of lightning, that even if the Congress did not win a single Muslim seat ... as long as it won an absolute majority in the House, on the strength of the general seats, it could and would form a government entirely on its own ..."[83] SONY Vaio VGN-TXN25N/B CPU Fan
In the next two years, Jinnah worked to build support among Muslims for the League. He secured the right to speak for the Muslim-led Bengali and Punjabi provincial governments in the central government in New Delhi ("the centre"). He worked to expand the league, reducing the cost of membership to two annas (⅛ of a rupee), HP Pavilion dv7-4053cl CPU Fan
half of what it cost to join the Congress. He restructured the League along the lines of the Congress, putting most power in a Working Committee, which he appointed.[84] By December 1939, Liaquat estimated that the League had three million two-anna members.[85] Dell Latitude E6510 CPU Fan
Until the late 1930s, most Muslims of the British Raj expected, upon independence, to be part of a unitary state encompassing all of British India, as did the Hindus and others who advocated self-government.[86] Despite this, other nationalist proposals were being made. In aspeech given at Allahabad to a League session in 1930, Compaq Presario CQ61-304SL CPU Fan
Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for a state for Muslims in India. Choudhary Rahmat Alipublished a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state "Pakistan" in the Indus Valley, with other names given to Muslim-majority areas elsewhere in India.[87] DELL LATITUDE E4310 Series CPU Fan
Jinnah and Iqbal corresponded in 1936 and 1937; in subsequent years, Jinnah credited Iqbal as his mentor, and used Iqbal's imagery and rhetoric in his speeches.[88]
Although many leaders of the Congress sought a strong central government for an Indian state, some Muslim politicians, including Jinnah, SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
were unwilling to accept this without powerful protections for their community.[86] Other Muslims supported the Congress, which officially advocated a secular state upon independence, though the traditionalist wing (including politicians such as Madan Mohan Malaviya andVallabhbhai Patel) HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
believed that an independent India should enact laws such as banning the killing of cows and making Hindi a national language. The failure of the Congress leadership to disavow Hindu communalists worried Congress-supporting Muslims. Nevertheless, the Congress enjoyed considerable Muslim support up to about 1937.[89] Lenovo 45N2240 Laptop Keyboard
Events which separated the communities included the failed attempt to form a coalition government including the Congress and the League in the United Provinces following the 1937 election.[90] According to historian Ian Talbot, "The provincial Congress governments made no effort to understand and respect their Muslim populations' cultural and religious sensibilities. SONY VAIO VGN-NW25GF laptop keyboard
The Muslim League's claims that it alone could safeguard Muslim interests thus received a major boost. Significantly it was only after this period of Congress rule that it [the League] took up the demand for a Pakistan state ..."[79] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
Balraj Puri in his journal article about Jinnah suggests that the Muslim League president, after the 1937 vote, turned to the idea of partition in "sheer desperation".[91] HistorianAkbar S. Ahmed suggests that Jinnah abandoned hope of reconciliation with the Congress as he "rediscover[ed] his own [Islamic] HP Pavilion dv6-3134nr laptop keyboard
roots, his own sense of identity, of culture and history, which would come increasingly to the fore in the final years of his life".[14] Jinnah also increasingly adopted Muslim dress in the late 1930s.[92] TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5163 laptop keyboard
In the wake of the 1937 balloting, Jinnah demanded that the question of power sharing be settled on an all-India basis, and that he, as president of the League, be accepted as the sole spokesman for the Muslim community.[93] TOSHIBA Tecra M10-S3401 laptop keyboard
Second World War and Lahore Resolution
On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced the commencement of war with Nazi Germany.[94] The following day, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, without consulting Indian political leaders, Toshiba Satellite A300-034 CPU Fan
announced that India had entered the war along with Britain. There were widespread protests in India. After meeting with Jinnah and with Gandhi, Linlithgow announced that negotiations on self-government were suspended for the duration of the war.[95] The Congress on 14 September demanded immediate independence with a constituent assembly to decide a constitution; HP DFS551305MC0T CPU Fan
when this was refused, its eight provincial governments resigned on 10 November and governors in those provinces thereafter ruled by decree for the remainder of the war. Jinnah, on the other hand, was more willing to accommodate the British, and they in turn increasingly recognised him and the League as the representatives of India's Muslims.[96HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
]Jinnah later stated, "after the war began, ... I was treated on the same basis as Mr. Gandhi. I was wonderstruck why I was promoted and given a place side by side with Mr. Gandhi."[97] Although the League did not actively support the British war effort, neither did they try to obstruct it.[98] HP Pavilion dv7-2145eg CPU Fan
With the British and Muslims to some extent cooperating, the Viceroy asked Jinnah for an expression of the Muslim League's position on self-government, confident that it would differ greatly from that of the Congress. HP Pavilion dv7-2230ev CPU Fan
To come up with such a position, the League's Working Committee met for four days in February 1940 to set out terms of reference to a constitutional sub-committee. The Working Committee asked that the sub-committee return with a proposal that would result in "independent dominions in direct relationship with Great Britain" where Muslims were dominant.[99] Compaq Presario CQ70-115EO CPU Fan
On 6 February, Jinnah informed the Viceroy that the Muslim League would be demanding partition instead of the federation contemplated in the 1935 Act. The Lahore Resolution (sometimes called the "Pakistan Resolution", although it does not contain that name), based on the sub-committee's work, embraced the HP Pavilion dv6699eg CPU Fan
Two-Nation Theory and called for a union of the Muslim-majority provinces in the northwest of British India, with complete autonomy. Similar rights were to be granted the Muslim-majority areas in the east, and unspecified protections given to Muslim minorities in other provinces. The resolution was passed by the League session inLahore on 23 March 1940.[100][101] HP Pavilion dv7-4117ez CPU Fan
Gandhi's reaction to the Lahore Resolution was muted; he called it "baffling", but told his disciples that Muslims, in common with other people of India, had the right to self-determination. Leaders of the Congress were more vocal; Jawaharlal Nehru (son of Motilal) referred to Lahore as "Jinnah's fantastic proposals" while Chakravarti Rajagopalachari deemed Jinnah's views on partition "a sign of a diseased mentality".[102] ASUS A8M CPU Fan
Linlithgow met with Jinnah in June 1940,[103] soon after Winston Churchill became the British prime minister, and in August offered both the Congress and the League a deal whereby in exchange for full support for the war, Linlithgow would allow Indian representation on his major war councils. Toshiba Satellite M70-204 CPU Fan
The Viceroy promised a representative body after the war to determine India's future, and that no future settlement would be imposed over the objections of a large part of the population. This was satisfactory to neither the Congress nor the League, HP COMPAQ NX9420 Series CPU Fan
though Jinnah was pleased that the British had moved towards recognising Jinnah as the representative of the Muslim community's interests.[104] Jinnah was reluctant to make specific proposals as to the boundaries of Pakistan, or its relationships with Britain and with the rest of the subcontinent, fearing that any precise plan would divide the League.[105] COMPAQ Presario CQ50-209WM laptop keyboard
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941 brought the United States into the war. In the following months, the Japanese advanced in southeast Asia, and the British Cabinet sent a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps to try to conciliate the Indians and cause them to fully back the war. HP G61-420SS laptop keyboard
Cripps proposed giving some provinces what was dubbed the "local option" to remain outside of an Indian central government either for a period of time or permanently, to become dominions on their own or be part of another confederation. HP Pavilion dv6-3164si laptop keyboard
The Muslim League was far from certain of winning the legislative votes that would be required for mixed provinces such as Bengal and Punjab to secede, and Jinnah rejected the proposals as not sufficiently recognising Pakistan's right to exist. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
The Congress also rejected the Cripps plan, demanding immediate concessions which Cripps was not prepared to give.[106][107] Despite the rejection, Jinnah and the League saw the Cripps proposal as recognising Pakistan in principle.[108] SONY VGN-FE28B laptop keyboard
The Congress followed the failed Cripps mission by demanding, in August 1942, that the British immediately "Quit India", proclaiming a mass campaign of satyagraha until they did. The British promptly arrested most major leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them for the remainder of the war. Gandhi, however, Lenovo 45N2240 laptop keyboard
was placed on house arrest in one of the Aga Khan's palaces prior to his release for health reasons in 1944. With the Congress leaders absent from the political scene, Jinnah warned against the threat of Hindu domination and maintained his Pakistan demand without going into great detail about what that would entail DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Jinnah also worked to increase the League's political control at the provincial level.[109][110] He helped to found the newspaper Dawn in the early 1940s in Delhi; it helped to spread the League's message and eventually became the major English-language newspaper of Pakistan.[111] SONY VAIO VGN-N21M/W laptop keyboard
In September 1944, Jinnah and Gandhi, who had by then been released from his palatial prison, met at the Muslim leader's home onMalabar Hill in Bombay. Two weeks of talks followed, which resulted in no agreement. Jinnah insisted on Pakistan being conceded prior to the British departure, and to come into being immediately on their departure, LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
while Gandhi proposed that plebiscites on partition occur sometime after a united India gained its independence.[112] In early 1945, Liaquat and the Congress leader Bhulabhai Desai met, with Jinnah's approval and agreed that after the war, HP 496878-001 laptop keyboard
the Congress and the League should form an interim government and that the members of the Executive Council of the Viceroy should be nominated by the Congress and the League in equal numbers. When the Congress leadership was released from prison in June 1945, they repudiated the agreement and censured Desai for acting without proper authority.[113] HP G72-a20SO laptop keyboard
Postwar
Field Marshal the Viscount Wavell succeeded Linlithgow as Viceroy in 1943. In June 1945, following the release of the Congress leaders, Wavell called for a conference, and invited the leading figures from the various communities to meet with him at Simla. SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
He proposed a temporary government along the lines which Liaquat and Desai had agreed. However, Wavell was unwilling to guarantee that only the League's candidates would be placed in the seats reserved for Muslims. HP Pavilion DV7-2173cl laptop keyboard
All other invited groups submitted lists of candidates to the Viceroy. Wavell cut the conference short in mid-July without further seeking an agreement; with a British general election imminent, Churchill's government did not feel it could proceed.[114] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The British people returned Clement Attlee and his Labour Party later in July. Attlee and his Secretary of State for India, Lord Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, immediately ordered a review of the Indian situation.[115] SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
Jinnah had no comment on the change of government, but called a meeting of his Working Committee and issued a statement calling for new elections in India. The League held influence at the provincial level in the Muslim-majority states mostly by alliance, and Jinnah believed that, HP G62-b57EE laptop keyboard
given the opportunity, the League would improve its electoral standing and lend added support to his claim to be the sole spokesman for the Muslims. Wavell returned to India in September after consultation with his new masters in London; elections, both for the centre and for the provinces, were announced soon after. SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
The British indicated that formation of a constitution-making body would follow the votes.[116]
The Muslim League declared that they would campaign on a single issue: Pakistan.[117] Speaking in Ahmedabad, Jinnah echoed this, COMPAQ Presario CQ61 Laptop Keyboard
"Pakistan is a matter of life or death for us."[118] In the December 1945 elections for the Constituent Assembly of India, the League won every seat reserved for Muslims. In the provincial elections in January 1946, the League took 75% of the Muslim vote, an increase from 4.4% in 1937.[119] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
According to his biographer Bolitho, "This was Jinnah's glorious hour: his arduous political campaigns, his robust beliefs and claims, were at last justified."[120]Wolpert wrote that the League election showing "appeared to prove the universal appeal of Pakistan among Muslims of the subcontinent".[121] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The Congress dominated the central assembly nevertheless, though it lost four seats from its previous strength.[121]
In February 1946, the British Cabinet resolved to send a delegation to India to negotiate with leaders there. This Cabinet Mission included Cripps and Pethick-Lawrence. HP Pavilion dv5-1030ev laptop keyboard
The highest-level delegation to try to break the deadlock, it arrived in New Delhi in late March. Little negotiation had been done since the previous October because of the elections in India.[122] SONY VAIO VGN-N27GH/B laptop keyboard
The British in May released a plan for a united Indian state comprising substantially autonomous provinces, and called for "groups" of provinces formed on the basis of religion. Matters such as defence, HP G56-128CA laptop keyboard
external relations and communications would be handled by a central authority. Provinces would have the option of leaving the union entirely, and there would be an interim government with representation from the Congress and the League. HP Pavilion dv5-1205eg laptop keyboard
Jinnah and his Working Committee accepted this plan in June, but it fell apart over the question of how many members of the interim government the Congress and the League would have, and over the Congress's desire to include a Muslim member in its representation. SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W laptop keyboard
Before leaving India, the British ministers stated that they intended to inaugurate an interim government even if one of the major groups was unwilling to participate.[123]
The Congress soon joined the new Indian ministry. The League was slower to do so, not entering until October 1946. In agreeing to have the League join the government, SONY VAIO VGN-FS215S laptop keyboard
Jinnah abandoned his demands for parity with the Congress and a veto on matters concerning Muslims. The new ministry met amid a backdrop of rioting, especially in Calcutta.[124] The Congress wanted the Viceroy to immediately summon the constituent assembly and begin the work of writing a constitution, SONY VAIO VGN-N21Z/W laptop keyboard
and felt that the League ministers should either join in the request or resign from the government. Wavell attempted to save the situation by flying leaders such as Jinnah, Liaquat, and Jawaharlal Nehru to London in December 1946. HP COMPAQ NC6120 laptop keyboard
At the end of the talks, participants issued a statement that the constitution would not be forced on any unwilling parts of India.[125] On the way back from London, Jinnah and Liaquat stopped in Cairo for several days of pan-Islamic meetings.[126] TOSHIBA Satellite C650-01T laptop keyboard
ss endorsed the joint statement from the London conference over angry dissent from some elements. The League refused to do so, and took no part in the constitutional discussions.[125] Jinnah had been willing to consider some continued links to Hindustan (as the Hindu-majority HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
state which would be formed on partition was sometimes referred to), such as a joint military or communications. However, by December 1946, he insisted on a fully sovereign Pakistan with dominion status.[127] HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
Following the failure of the London trip, Jinnah was in no hurry to reach an agreement, figuring that time would allow him to gain the undivided provinces of Bengal and Punjab for Pakistan, but these wealthy, populous provinces had sizeable non-Muslim minorities, complicating a settlement.[128] Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard
The Attlee ministry desired a rapid British departure from India, but had little confidence in Wavell to achieve that end. Beginning in December 1946, British officials began looking for a viceregal successor to Wavell, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
and soon fixed onAdmiral Lord Mountbatten of Burma, a war leader popular among Conservatives as the great-grandson of Queen Victoria and among Labour for his political views.[126] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard
Mountbatten and independence
Main article: Partition of India
On 20 February 1947, Attlee announced Mountbatten's appointment, and that Britain would transfer power in India not later than June 1948.[129] Mountbatten took office as Viceroy on 24 March 1947, HP Mini 110-1160SL Laptop Keyboard
two days after his arrival in India.[130] By then, the Congress had come around to the idea of partition. Nehru stated in 1960, "the truth is that we were tired men and we were getting on in years ... The plan for partition offered a way out and we took it."[131] DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard
Leaders of the Congress decided that having loosely tied Muslim-majority provinces as part of a future India was not worth the loss of the powerful government at the centre which they desired.[132] However, the Congress insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent, Bengal and Punjab would have to be divided.[133] Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
Mountbatten had been warned in his briefing papers that Jinnah would be his "toughest customer" who had proved a chronic nuisance because "no one in this country [India] had so far gotten into Jinnah's mind".[134] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
The men met over six days beginning on 5 April. The sessions began lightly when Jinnah, photographed between Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, quipped "A rose between two thorns" which the Viceroy took, perhaps gratuitously, HP HDX18-1200 CTO Laptop Keyboard
as evidence that the Muslim leader had pre-planned his joke, but had expected the vicereine to stand in the middle.[135] Mountbatten was not favourably impressed with Jinnah, repeatedly expressing frustration to his staff about Jinnah's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument.[136] SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in India, they would turn control over to the Congress-dominated constituent assembly, putting Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to win autonomy. He demanded that Mountbatten divide the army prior to independence, DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard
which would take at least a year. Mountbatten had hoped that the post-independence arrangements would include a common defence force, but Jinnah saw it as essential that a sovereign state should have its own forces. Mountbatten met with Liaquat the day of his final session with Jinnah, and concluded, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
as he told Attlee and the Cabinet in May, that "it had become clear that the Muslim League would resort to arms if Pakistan in some form were not conceded."[137][138] The Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of the assembly, which envisioned broad powers for the post-independence central government.[139] HP Pavilion dm1-1030tu Laptop Keyboard
On 2 June, the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders: on 15 August, the British would turn over power to two dominions. The provinces would vote on whether to continue in the existing constituent assembly, or to have a new one, that is, to join Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab would also vote, both on the question of which assembly to join, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
and on partition. A boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces. Plebiscites would take place in the North-West Frontier Province (which did not have a League government despite an overwhelmingly Muslim population), and in the majority-Muslim Sylhet district of Assam, adjacent to eastern Bengal. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
On 3 June, Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Sikh leader Baldev Singh made the formal announcement by radio.[140][141][142] Jinnah concluded his address with "Pakistan zindabad " (Long live Pakistan), which was not in the script.[143] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
In the weeks which followed Punjab and Bengal cast the votes which resulted in partition. Sylhet and the N.W.F.P. voted to cast their lots with Pakistan, a decision joined by the assemblies in Sind and Baluchistan.[142] HP G61-406SA Laptop Keyboard
On 4 July 1947, Liaquat asked Mountbatten on Jinnah's behalf to recommend to the British king, George VI, that Jinnah be appointed Pakistan's first governor-general. This request angered Mountbatten, who had hoped to have that position in both dominions—he would be India's first post-independence governor-general--SONY VAIO VGN-N230FH/W Laptop Keyboard
but Jinnah felt that Mountbatten would be likely to favour the new Hindu-majority state because of his closeness to Nehru. In addition, the governor-general would initially be a powerful figure, and Jinnah did not trust anyone else to take that office. Although the Boundary Commission, led by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe, SONY Vaio VGN-AW31M/H Laptop Keyboard
had not yet reported, there were already massive movements of populations between the nations-to-be, as well as sectarian violence. Jinnah arranged to sell his house in Bombay and procured a new one in Karachi. On 7 August, Jinnah, with his sister and close staff, flew from Delhi to Karachi in Mountbatten's plane, HP Pavilion dv7-6175us CPU Fan
and as the plane taxied, he was heard to murmur, "That's the end of that.".[144][145][146] On 11 August, he presided over the new constituent assembly for Pakistan at Karachi, and addressed them, "You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan ... SONY Vaio VGN-CR42Z/R CPU Fan
You may belong to any religion or caste or creed—that has nothing to do with the business of the State."[147] On 14 August, Pakistan became independent; Jinnah led the celebrations in Karachi. One observer wrote, "here indeed is Pakistan's King Emperor, Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker and Prime Minister concentrated into one formidable Quaid-e-Azam."[148] HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
Governor-General
The Radcliffe Commission, dividing Bengal and Punjab, completed its work and reported to Mountbatten on 12 August; the last Viceroy held the maps until the 17th, not wanting to spoil the independence celebrations in both nations. HP Pavilion dv5-1199ec CPU Fan
There had already been ethnically charged violence and movement of populations; publication of the Radcliffe Line dividing the new nations sparked mass migration, murder, and ethnic cleansing. Many on the "wrong side" of the lines fled or were murdered, HP Pavilion dv2418ca CPU Fan
or murdered others, hoping to make facts on the ground which would reverse the commission's verdict. Radcliffe wrote in his report that he knew that neither side would be happy with his award; he declined his fee for the work.[149] HP MCF-811AM05 CPU Fan
Christopher Beaumont, Radcliffe's private secretary, later wrote that Mountbatten "must take the blame—though not the sole blame—for the massacres in the Punjab in which between 500,000 to a million men, women and children perished".[150] ACER B0506PGV1-8A CPU Fan
As many as 14,500,000 people relocated between India and Pakistan during and after partition.[150]Jinnah did what he could for the eight million people who migrated to Pakistan; although by now over 70 and frail from lung ailments, he travelled across West Pakistan and personally supervised the provision of aid.[151] DELL DC28A00141L CPU Fan
According to Ahmed, "What Pakistan needed desperately in those early months was a symbol of the state, one that would unify people and give them the courage and resolve to succeed."[152]
Along with Liaquat and Abdur Rab Nishtar, Jinnah represented Pakistan's interests in the Division Council to appropriately divide public assets between India and Pakistan.[153] HP 535439-001 CPU Fan
Pakistan was supposed to receive one-sixth of the pre-independence government's assets, carefully divided by agreement, even specifying how many sheets of paper each side would receive. The new Indian state, however, was slow to deliver, hoping for the collapse of the nascent Pakistani government, HP Pavilion dv5-1190eh CPU Fan
and reunion. Few members of the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service had chosen Pakistan, resulting in staff shortages. Crop growers found their markets on the other side of an international border. HP 640892-001 Laptop Keyboard
There were shortages of machinery, not all of which was made in Pakistan. In addition to the massive refugee problem, the new government sought to save abandoned crops, establish security in a chaotic situation, and provide basic services. Lenovo 0A62039 Laptop Keyboard
According to economist Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin in her study of Pakistan, "although Pakistan was born in bloodshed and turmoil, it survived in the initial and difficult months after partition only because of the tremendous sacrifices made by its people and the selfless efforts of its great leader."[154] HP NSK-H7A01 Laptop Keyboard
The Indian Princely States, of which there were several hundred, were advised by the departing British to choose whether to join Pakistan or India. Most did so prior to independence, but the holdouts contributed to what have become lasting divisions between the two nations.[155] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Indian leaders were angered at Jinnah's courting the princes of Jodhpur, Bhopal and Indore to accede to Pakistan—these princely states did not border Pakistan, and each had a Hindu-majority population.[156] SONY VAIO VGN-CS17G/Q laptop keyboard
The coastal princely state of Junagadh, which had a majority-Hindu population, did accede to Pakistan in September 1947, with its ruler's dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, personally delivering the accession papers to Jinnah. SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
The Indian army occupied the principality in November, forcing its former leaders, including Bhutto, to flee to Pakistan, beginning the politically powerful Bhutto family.[157]
The most contentious of the disputes was, and continues to be, that over the princely state of Kashmir. It had a Muslim-majority population and a Hindu maharaja, IBM Thinkpad T30 Series CPU Fan
Sir Hari Singh, who stalled his decision on which nation to join. With the population in revolt in October 1947, aided by Pakistani irregulars, the maharaja acceded to India; Indian troops were airlifted in. Jinnah objected to this action, and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir. HP Pavilion dv5218nr CPU Fan
The Pakistani Army was still commanded by British officers, and the commanding officer, General Sir Douglas Gracey, refused the order, stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of another nation without approval from higher authority, which was not forthcoming. Jinnah withdrew the order. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ2XP/C CPU Fan
This did not stop the violence there, which has broken into war between India and Pakistan from time to time since.[155][158]
Some historians allege that Jinnah's courting the rulers of Hindu-majority states and his gambit with Junagadh are evidence of ill-intent towards India, DELL Studio 1536 Series CPU Fan
as Jinnah had promoted separation by religion, yet tried to gain the accession of Hindu-majority states.[159] In his book Patel: A Life, Rajmohan Gandhi asserts that Jinnah hoped for a plebiscite in Junagadh, knowing Pakistan would lose, SONY UDQF2PH52CF0 CPU Fan
in the hope the principle would be established for Kashmir.[160] Despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 issued at India's request for a plebiscite in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistani forces, this has never occurred.[158] DELL Precision M90 CPU Fan
In January 1948, the Indian government finally agreed to pay Pakistan its share of British India's assets. They were impelled by Gandhi, who threatened a fast until death. Only days later, Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who believed that Gandhi was pro-Muslim. Jinnah made a brief statement of condolence, calling Gandhi "one of the greatest men produced by the Hindu community".[161] SONY Vaio VPC-EB1E0E CPU Fan
In March, Jinnah, despite his declining health, made his only post-independence visit to East Pakistan. In a speech before a crowd estimated at 300,000, Jinnah stated (in English) that Urdu alone should be the national language, believing a single language was needed for a nation to remain united. HP Pavilion tx2590eo CPU Fan
The Bengali-speaking people of East Pakistan strongly opposed this policy, and in 1971 the official language issue was a factor in the region's secession to form Bangladesh.[162]
After the establishment of Pakistan, Pakistani currency notes had the image of George V printed on them. These notes were in circulation till 30 June, 1949. But on 1 April, 1949, ACER TravelMate 5230 Series CPU Fan
these notes were stamped with "Government of Pakistan" and were used as legal tenders. On the same day, the then Finance Minister of Pakistan, Malik Ghulam Muhammad, presented a new set of seven coins (Re. 1, ₨. 1⁄2, ₨. 1⁄4, A. 2, A. 1, A. 1⁄2 and Pe. 1) HP Pavilion dv7t-6100 CTO CPU Fan
to Jinnah in the Governor House and were issued as the first coins minted by the Government of Pakistan.
From the 1930s, Jinnah suffered from tuberculosis; only his sister and a few others close to him were aware of his condition. Jinnah believed public knowledge of his lung ailments would hurt him politically. In a 1938 letter, IBM Thinkpad R30 2657-82A CPU Fan
he wrote to a supporter that "you must have read in the papers how during my tours ... I suffered, which was not because there was anything wrong with me, but the irregularities [of the schedule] and over-strain told upon my health".[163][164] HP Pavilion DV7-3100 Series CPU Fan
Many years later, Mountbatten stated that if he had known Jinnah was so ill, he would have stalled, hoping Jinnah's death would avert partition.[165] Fatima Jinnah later wrote, "even in his hour of triumph, the Quaid-e-Azam was gravely ill ... Toshiba Satellite A215-S7444 CPU Fan
He worked in a frenzy to consolidate Pakistan. And, of course, he totally neglected his health ..."[166] Jinnah worked with a tin of Craven "A" cigarettes at his desk, of which he had smoked 50 or more a day for the previous 30 years, as well as a box of Cuban cigars. He took longer and longer rest breaks in the private wing of Government House in Karachi, where only he, Fatima and the servants were allowed.[167] MSI Wind U130 CPU Fan
In June 1948, he and Fatima flew to Quetta, in the mountains of Baluchistan, where the weather was cooler than in Karachi. He could not completely rest there, addressing the officers at the Command and Staff College saying, MSI Wind U130 CPU Fan
"you, along with the other Forces of Pakistan, are the custodians of the life, property and honour of the people of Pakistan."[168] He returned to Karachi for the 1 July opening ceremony for the State Bank of Pakistan, at which he spoke; a reception by the Canadian trade commissioner that evening in honour of Dominion Day was the last public event he ever attended.[169] HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
On 6 July 1948, Jinnah returned to Quetta, but at the advice of doctors, soon journeyed to an even higher retreat at Ziarat. Jinnah had always been reluctant to undergo medical treatment, but realising his condition, HP 9J.NOL82.W01 laptop keyboard
the Pakistani government sent the best doctors it could find to treat him. Tests confirmed tuberculosis, and showed evidence of lung cancer. Jinnah was informed, and asked for full information on his disease and for care in how his sister was told. He was treated with the new "miracle drug" of streptomycin, TOSHIBA V-0522BIAS1-US laptop keyboard
but it did not help. Jinnah's condition continued to deteriorate despite the Eid prayers of his people. He was moved to the lower altitude of Quetta on 13 August, the eve of Independence Day, for which a statement ghost-written for him was released. Despite an increase in appetite (he then weighed just over 36 kilograms [79 lb]) HP 9J.NOL82.W01 laptop keyboard
, it was clear to his doctors that if he was to return to Karachi in life, he would have to do so very soon. Jinnah, however, was reluctant to go, not wishing his aides to see him as an invalid on a stretcher.[170] SONY VAIO VGN NR220E laptop keyboard
By 9 September, Jinnah had also developed pneumonia. Doctors urged him to return to Karachi, where he could receive better care, and with his agreement, he was flown there on 11 September. Dr. Ilahi Bux, his personal physician, DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
believed that Jinnah's change of mind was caused by foreknowledge of death. The plane landed at Karachi, to be met by Jinnah's limousine, and an ambulance into which Jinnah's stretcher was placed. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
The ambulance broke down on the road into town, and the Governor-General and those with him waited for another to arrive; he could not be placed in the car as he could not sit up. They waited by the roadside in oppressive heat as trucks and buses passed by, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
unsuitable for transporting the dying man and with their occupants not knowing of Jinnah's presence. After an hour, the replacement ambulance came, and transported Jinnah to Government House, arriving there over two hours after the landing. Jinnah died at 10:20 pm at his home in Karachi on 11 September 1948, just over a year after Pakistan's creation.[171][172] HP Pavilion dv6-3043tx laptop keyboard
Indian Prime Minister Nehru stated upon Jinnah's death, "How shall we judge him? I have been very angry with him often during the past years. But now there is no bitterness in my thought of him, only a great sadness for all that has been ... he succeeded in his quest and gained his objective, HP Pavilion dv6-2159tx laptop keyboard
but at what a cost and with what a difference from what he had imagined."[173] Jinnah was buried on 12 September 1948 amid official mourning in both India and Pakistan; a million people gathered for his funeral. Indian Governor-General Rajagopalachari cancelled an official reception that day, in honour of the late leader. Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
Today, Jinnah rests in a large marble mausoleum, Mazar-e-Quaid, in Karachi.[174][175][176]
Aftermath
Dina Wadia, Jinnah's daughter, remained in India after independence before ultimately settling in New York City. In the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah, TOSHIBA Qosmio F40/88EBL laptop keyboard
by then known as Madar-e-Millat ("Mother of the Nation"), became the presidential candidate of a coalition of political parties that opposed the rule of President Ayub Khan, but was not successful.[177] DELL 0454RX laptop keyboard
The Jinnah House in Malabar Hill, Bombay, is in the possession of the Government of India, but the issue of its ownership has been disputed by the Government of Pakistan.[178] Jinnah had personally requested Prime Minister Nehru to preserve the house, hoping one day he could return to Mumbai. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
There are proposals for the house be offered to the government of Pakistan to establish a consulate in the city as a goodwill gesture, but Dina Wadia has also asked for the property.[178][179] HP G61-406SA laptop keyboard
After Jinnah died, his sister Fatima asked the court to execute Jinnah's will under Shia Islamic law.[180] This subsequently became the part of argument in Pakistan about Jinnah's religious affiliation. Vali Nasr says Jinnah "was an Ismaili by birth and a Twelver Shia by confession, though not a religiously observant man."[181] ASUS A3Hf Laptop Keyboard
In a 1970 legal challenge, Hussain Ali Ganji Walji claimed Jinnah had converted to Sunni Islam, but the High Court rejected this claim in 1976, effectively accepting the Jinnah family as Shia.[182] Publicly, Jinnah had a non-sectarian stance and "was at pains to gather the Muslims of India under the banner of a general Muslim faith and not under a divisive sectarian identity."[180] SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard
In 1970, a Pakistani court decision stated that Jinnah's "secular Muslim faith made him neither Shia nor Sunni",[180] and in 1984 the court maintained that "the Quaidwas definitely not a Shia".[180] Liaquat H. Merchant elaborates that "he was also not a Sunni, he was simply a Muslim".[180]Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
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