Naval forces assisted Grant in his long, complex campaign that resulted in the surrender of Vicksburg in July 1863, and full Union control of the Mississippi soon after.[167]
Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 4231 laptop keyboard
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. ACER Aspire 4736Z laptop keyboard
Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in thePeninsula Campaign,[170][171][172] SONY VAIO VGN-CS17G/R laptop keyboard
Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat.[173] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.[174] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops. FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across thePotomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam nearSharpsburg, SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[173][175] Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[176] SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[177] on December 13, 1862, DELL NSK-D5A01 laptop keyboard
when over 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863.[178] Gen. HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded by his own men during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863).[179] This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. HP Pavilion dv6-2120sp laptop keyboard
Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[180] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
Western theater SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
For more details on this topic, see Western Theater of the American Civil War.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[181] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization. HP Pavilion dv3-2175ee laptop keyboard
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans,[182] HP Pavilion G6-1B87CL laptop keyboard
which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, HP Pavilion G6-1227TU laptop keyboard
although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state.[183] Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.[184] HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged. HP Mini 1151NR laptop keyboard
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh;[185] DELL V110546AS1 laptop keyboard
and the Battle of Vicksburg,[186] which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,[187] DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.[190] Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, DELL V110546AS1 laptop keyboard
striking both military installations and civilian settlements.[191] The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. SONY VAIO PCG-FR415S laptop keyboard
By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.[189] HP Pavilion dv5-1110em laptop keyboard
Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out inside the tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union.[192] The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.[193] HP Pavilion dv6-2125el laptop keyboard
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him.[194] Its 1864Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war. HP Pavilion dv3-2320es laptop keyboard
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Packard Bell Easynote TK87 laptop keyboard
Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.[195] This was total war not in terms of killing civilians but rather in terms of destroying homes, farms, Lenovo Thinkpad W510 laptop keyboard
and railroads. Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. GeneralsGeorge Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama. Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard
Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during that phase ("Grant's Overland Campaign") of the Eastern campaign. Grant'sbattles of attrition at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor resulted in heavy Union losses, but forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly.[196] HP Mini 110-3109sl laptop keyboard
An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside theBermuda Hundred river bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 65,000 casualties in seven weeks), SONY 147977821 laptop keyboard
kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond.[197] He pinned down the Confederate army in the Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months. ASUS F6S laptop keyboard
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. LENOVO IdeaPad S10e 4068 laptop keyboard
John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Packard Bell Easynote LM82 laptop keyboard
Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.[198]
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.[199] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign.[200] FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomasdealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S6217 laptop keyboard
laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.[201] SONY VAIO VGN-FS215E laptop keyboard
Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. Union forces won a decisive victory at the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, forcing Lee to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, SONY Vaio VGN-AW21VY/Q laptop keyboard
composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west and after a defeat at Sayler's Creek, it became clear to Robert E. Lee that continued fighting against the United States was both tactically and logistically impossible.[202] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Confederacy surrenders
Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House in the village of Appomattox Court House.[203] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, DELL Studio 1747 laptop keyboard
Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.[204] President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, ASUS F6S laptop keyboard
1865, Confederate President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day.[1] On June 23, 1865, Cherokee leader Stand Watie was the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.[205]
Diplomacy LENOVO IdeaPad S10e 4068 laptop keyboard
Main articles: Britain in the American Civil War and France in the American Civil War
Europe in the 1860s was more fragmented than it had been since before the American Revolution. Packard Bell Easynote LM82 laptop keyboard
France was in a weakened state while Britain was still shocked by its own poor performance in the Crimean War.[206] France was unable or unwilling to support either side without Britain, where popular support remained with the Union though elite opinion was more varied. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
They were further distracted by Germany and Italy, who were experiencing unification troubles, and by Russia, who was almost unflinching in their support for the Union.[206][207]
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators.[206][207] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. HP G72-250US Laptop Keyboard
Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war in order to get cotton, but this did not work.[208] HP G72-b10SG Laptop Keyboard
Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard
It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.[208] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.[209]
Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept as minister to Britain for the U.S. and Britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the blockade. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard
The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial ship builders in Britain. The most famous, the CSS Alabama, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain (which had abolished slavery in her its colonies in 1834).[210] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent Affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of a British mail steamer to seize two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
In 1862, the British considered mediation—though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on this.[210] FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S6217 laptop keyboard
Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.[211] SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
Victory and aftermath
Results
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215E laptop keyboard
The Freedmen did indeed get their freedom, their citizenship, and control of their lives, their families and their churches.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, such as James McPherson, Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.[212] McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.[213] DELL Studio 1747 laptop keyboard
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.[213] The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, SONY VAIO VPCF12 Laptop Keyboard
after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, DELL 0NU956 Laptop Keyboard
emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated theCopperheads and their peace platform.[217]
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in terms of industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, DELL V110546AS1 Laptop Keyboard
they argue, only delayed defeat.[218][219] Civil War historian Shelby Footeexpressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War."[220]
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it,"people did not will hard enough and long enough to win."[221][222] GATEWAY M-6849 Laptop Keyboard
The black Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. ACER 9J.N1H82.01D Laptop Keyboard
He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict.[223] However, most historians reject the argument.[224] James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, TOSHIBA Qosmio F20 Series Laptop Keyboard
found very strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864-5, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.[225] TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard
Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up – some few deserters – plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out."[226] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. Although Lincoln's approach to emancipation was slow, the Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.[227] HP Pavilion dv4-1102tu Laptop Keyboard
The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. ASUS A3L Laptop Keyboard
Lincoln's naval blockade was 95% effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, ACER Aspire 7745G Laptop Keyboard
along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Costs HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard
The war produced about 1,030,000 casualties (3% of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians.[228]Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20% higher than traditionally estimated, HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
and possibly as high as 850,000.[229][230] The war accounted for roughly as many American deaths as all American deaths in other U.S. wars combined.[231]
Black troops accounted for 10% of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15% of disease deaths but less than 3% of those killed in battle.[2] SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D Laptop Keyboard
Losses can be viewed as high considering that the defeat of Mexico in 1846-48 resulted in fewer than 2,000 soldiers killed in battle. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the use of Napoleonic tactics, DELL JVT97 Laptop Keyboard
such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined the better part of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; DELL Inspiron 510m Laptop Keyboard
they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 18, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40% of that of the North, TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard
a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the US federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.[236] The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, ASUS F6S Laptop Keyboard
not to abolish slavery.[237] Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal.[238] HP Mini 1110TU Laptop Keyboard
Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans.[239] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.[240]
Emancipation ProclamationHP Mini 1109TU Laptop Keyboard
Main article: Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army.[N 8] HP Envy 15-1100 Series Laptop Keyboard
About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.[N 9] SONY VGN-FE41S laptop keyboard
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, LENOVO 25-008389 laptop keyboard
and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game." [246] Copperheadsand some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.[247] Packard Bell Easynote TK81 laptop keyboard
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical Lenovo 04W2236 laptop keyboard
type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.[248] But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. ACER TravelMate 2480 laptop keyboard
When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[249] Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published letter to abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper.[250] Packard Bell Easynote LM85 laptop keyboard
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[251] Lincoln issued his preliminaryEmancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me." [252] TOSHIBA PK13CW10200 laptop keyboard
Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union controlled regions around New Orleans, HP Pavilion dv6-3050ca laptop keyboard
Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.[253]
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.[254] The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France.[255] HP Pavilion DV7-3169wm laptop keyboard
By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent[256]
Reconstruction
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 and continued to 1877.[257] DELL Studio 1747 laptop keyboard
It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the war, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments" to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to guarantee the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu laptop keyboard
and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.[258]
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Radical Republicans demanded strong proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 4231 laptop keyboard
They used the Army to dissolve Southern state governments and hold new elections with Freedmen voting. The result was a Republican coalition that took power in ten states for varying lengths of time, staying in power with the help of U.S. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
Army units and black voters. Grant was elected president in 1868 and continued the Radical policies. Meanwhile the Freedmen's Bureau, started by Lincoln in 1865 to help the freed slaves, played a major role in helping the blacks and arranging work for them. HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard
In opposition paramilitary groups such as the first Ku Klux Klan used violence to thwart these efforts.[259]
The "Liberal Republicans" argued the war goals had been achieved and Reconstruction should end. SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
They ran a ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated as Grant was reelected. In 1874, Democrats took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The disputed 1876 elections were resolved by the Compromise of 1877, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-N500BL laptop keyboard
which put Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in the White House. He pulled out the last federal troops and the last Republican state governments in the South collapsed, marking the end of Civil War and Reconstruction.[260] SONY Vaio PCG-K37 laptop keyboard
The Civil War is one of the central events in America's collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard
in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.[261] The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
influencing the world.[262] Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause", which shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.[263]
[264] The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, COMPAQ 454954-001 laptop keyboard
to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. [264] Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, HP 7F0844 laptop keyboard
as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Lincoln (2012).
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's "Gilbraltar of the West" at Columbus, SONY Vaio VPC-EB33FM CPU Fan
Kentucky. Grant was rebuffed at Belmont, but cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.[163] Dell Latitude E6510 CPU Fan
In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action.[164] HP Pavilion dv2416us CPU Fan
They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh, (Pittsburg Landing) in Tennessee in April 1862, Toshiba Satellite A100-849 CPU Fan
the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory – the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over.[165] Dell Latitude E6510 CPU Fan
Memphis fell to Union forces and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. In April 1862, US Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederates abandoned the city, which gave the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.[166] HP Pavilion dv6-3306si CPU Fan
The Civil War prompted the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, HP Pavilion dv6-2110ea CPU Fan
knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries.[152] ACER Aspire 5741G Series CPU Fan
Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.[153] IBM ThinkPad T43 2668 CPU Fan
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well,[154] and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimac. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
the Virginia decimated the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it. The Battle of the Ironclads was a draw, but it marks the worldwide transition to ironclad warships.[155] HP Mini 110-3501tu laptop keyboard
The Confederacy lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.[156] SONY VAIO VGN-CR24G laptop keyboard
Blockade runners
Main article: Blockade runners of the American Civil War
British investors built small, very fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. SONY VAIO VGN-N37MH/B laptop keyboard
The ships were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; ACER TravelMate 6292 laptop keyboard
the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released.[157] The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, SONY Vaio VGN-FS23B CPU Fan
the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy. However, DELL Latitude E6410 Series CPU Fan
Wise argues that they provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.[158] HP Pavilion dv7-4170us CPU Fan
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of very few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although was sold to Union traders), HP Pavilion dv6701us CPU Fan
costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were very scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well.[159] The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. HP Pavilion dv9623cl CPU Fan
Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.[160]
To fight an offensive war the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, HP 450933-001 CPU Fan
and raided American merchants ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested.[153] After the war, the U.S. HP Envy 14-1195la CPU Fan
demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.[161]
Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family.[104] It is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Marquesan, Tahitian, Māori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island), and less closely to Samoan, andTongan. DELL DFS541305MH0T CPU Fan
According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 AD[106] followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa-Tonga. Toshiba Satellite U405D-S2870 CPU Fan
Those Polynesians remained in the islands, thereby becoming the Hawaiian people. Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language.[107] Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state, "Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan
and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between the Hawaiian and Society Islands."[108]Before the arrival of Captain James Cook, the Hawaiian language had no written form. That form was developed mainly by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826. They assigned letters from the Latin alphabet that corresponded to the Hawaiian sounds. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad T410i Series CPU Fan
Interest in Hawaiian increased significantly in the late 20th century. With the help of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, specially designated immersion schools were established where all subjects would be taught in Hawaiian. SONY VGN-SZ780E CPU Fan
Also, the University of Hawaii developed a Hawaiian language graduate studies program. Municipal codes were altered to favor Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments. HP Pavilion dv7-6035eo CPU Fan
Hawaiian distinguishes between long and short vowels. In modern practice, vowel length is indicated with a macron (kahakō). Also, Hawaiian uses the glottal stopas a consonant (ʻokina). It is written as a symbol similar to the apostrophe or opening single quote. HP G70-467CL CPU Fan
Hawaiian-language newspapers published from 1834–1948 and traditional native speakers of Hawaiian generally omit the marks in their own writing. The ʻokina and kahakō are intended to help non-native speakers. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
A sign language for the deaf, based on the Hawaiian language, has been in use in the islands since the early 1800s. Hawaiʻi Sign Language is now nearly extinct.
Hawaiian Pidgin ACER Aspire 5930 Laptop Keyboard
Main article: Hawaiian Pidgin
Some locals speak Hawaii Creole English (HCE), often called "pidgin". The lexicon of HCE derives mainly from English but also has words from Hawaiian, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Ilocano and Tagalog. During the 19th century, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
the increase in immigration (mainly from China, Japan, Portugal—and especially from the Azores archipelago—and Spain), SONY VAIO PCG-F16 Laptop Keyboard
caused a variant of English to develop. By the early 20th century pidgin speakers had children who acquired the pidgin as their first language. HCE speakers use some Hawaiian words without those words being considered archaic. HP G62-a60EV Laptop Keyboard
Most place names are retained from Hawaiian, as are some names for plants or animals. For example, tuna fish are often called ahi. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
HCE speakers have modified the meanings of certain English words. For example, "aunty" and "uncle" refer to any adult who is a friend, or to show respect for an elder. Grammar is also different. For example, instead of "It is hot today, isn't it?", Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 Laptop Keyboard
an HCE speaker would say simply "stay hot, eh?" When a word does not come to mind quickly, the term "da kine" refers to any word you cannot think of. Through the surfing boom in Hawaii, HCE has influenced surfer slang. Some HCE expressions, such asbrah and da kine, DELL BFB0505HA CPU Fan
have found their way to other places. The history of Hawaii can be traced through a succession of dominant industries: sandalwood,[119] whaling,[120] sugarcane (seeSugar plantations in Hawaii), pineapple, military, tourism, and education. DELL Studio 1555 Series CPU Fan
Since statehood in 1959, tourism has been the largest industry, contributing 24.3% of the Gross State Product (GSP) in 1997, despite efforts to diversify. The gross output for the state in 2003 was US$47 billion; per capita income for Hawaii residents was US$30,441. Toshiba KFB0505HB CPU Fan
Hawaiian exports include food and apparel. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, however, due to the considerable shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the United States. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Food exports include coffee (see coffee production in Hawaii), macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane, and both honey[121] and honeybees: "by weight, Hawaii's honeybees may be the state's most valuable export."[122] Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
Agricultural sales for 2002, according to the Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service, were US$370.9 million from diversified agriculture, US$100.6 million from pineapple, and US$64.3 million from sugarcane. DELL Inspiron 1720 CPU Fan
Hawaii's relatively constant climate has attracted the Genetically modified foodresearch industry which is able to test three generations of crops in a single year on the islands as compared to one or two on the mainland.[123] HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii was one of the few states to control gasoline prices through a Gas Cap Law. Since oil company profits in Hawaii compared to the mainland U.S. were under scrutiny, the law tied local gasoline prices to those of the mainland. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
It took effect in September 2005 amid price fluctuations caused by Hurricane Katrina, but was suspended in April 2006.
Hawaiian Electric Industries provides electricity (mostly from fossil-fuel power stations) to 95% of the state's population. SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard
As of January 2010, the state's unemployment rate was 6.9%.[124]
In 2009, the United States military spent $12.2 billion in Hawaii, accounting for 18% of spending in the state for that year. 75,000 United States Department of Defense personnel reside in Hawaii.[125] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Hawaii had the fourth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.18 percent.[126]
Taxation ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii has a relatively high state tax burden. In 2003, Hawaii residents had the highest state tax per capita at US$2,838.[citation needed] This is partly because education, health care and social services are all provided directly by the state, as opposed to local government in all other states.[improper synthesis?] HP Compaq NW8440 Laptop Keyboard
Millions of tourists contribute to the tax take by paying the general excise tax and hotel room tax; thus not all taxes come directly from residents. Business leaders, however, consider the state's tax burden too high, contributing to both higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate.[127] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
Cost of living
The cost of living in Hawaii, specifically Honolulu, is quite high compared to most major cities in the United States. However, the cost of living in Honolulu is 6.7% lower than in New York City and 3.6% lower than in San Francisco.[128] ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
These numbers may not take into account certain costs, such as increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States". ACER Aspire 2920Z Laptop Keyboard
While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Hawaii,[129] many merchants exclude Hawaii and Alaska, as well as Puerto Rico and certain other US territories. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
The median home value in Hawaii in the 2000 US Census was $272,700 while the national median home value was less than half of that, at $119,600. Hawaii home values were the highest of all states, SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
including California with a median home value of $211,500.[130] More recent research from the National Association of Realtors places the 2010 median sale price of a single family home in Honolulu, Hawaii at $607,600 and the US median sales price at $173,200. SONY VAIO VGN-CR325 Laptop Keyboard
The sale price of single family homes in Hawaii was the highest of any US city in 2010, just above the "Silicon Valley" area of California ($602,000).[131]
One of the most significant contributors to the high cost of living in Hawaii is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (also known as the Jones Act), which prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports (a practice known as cabotage). HP Mini 210-2036tu Laptop Keyboard
Most U.S. consumer goods are manufactured in East Asia at present, but because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with those goods cannot stop in Honolulu, offload Hawaii-bound goods, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
load mainland-bound Hawaii-manufactured goods, and continue to West Coast ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to the West Coast, where distributors break bulk and send Hawaiian-bound Asian-manufactured goods back west across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships.[132][133] ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Hawaiian consumers ultimately bear the expense of transporting goods again across the Pacific on U.S.-flagged ships subject to the extremely high operating costs imposed by the Jones Act. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard
This also makes Hawaii less competitive with West Coast ports as a shopping destination for tourists from home countries with much higher taxes (like Japan), even though prices for Asian-manufactured goods in theory should be cheaper since Hawaii is much closer to Asia.[134][135] HP Pavilion HDX9494NR laptop keyboard
Culture
The folklore in Hawaii in modern times is a mixture of various aspects of Hawaiian mythology and various urban legends that have been passed on regarding various places in the Hawaiian islands. According to Hawaiian legend, ACER 90.49V07.11D laptop keyboard
night marchers (huaka‘i po in Hawaiian) are ghosts of ancient warriors. Local folklore on the island of Oahu says that one should never carry pork over the Pali Highway connecting Honolulu and Windward Oahu. SONY VAIO VGN-FS980 laptop keyboard
In Paradise Park and the Manoa Falls Hiking Trail, folk legends say you can hear a spectre screaming. Across the street from Kahala Mall is a graveyard. It is said that if you drive past the remaining portion of this graveyard with your windows open, you will feel somebody else is in your car. SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard
The story of the green lady is that of a woman who would visit the gulch of Wahiawa and will take any child that she comes across. contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Compaq Presario CQ71-420SO Laptop Keyboard
Styles like slack-key guitar are well-known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar.[136] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Traditional Hawaiian folk music is a major part of the state's musical heritage. The Hawaiian people have inhabited the islands for centuries and have retained much of their traditional musical knowledge. DELL Inspiron 1435 Laptop Keyboard
Their music is largely religious in nature, and includes chanting and dance music. Hawaiian music has had an enormous impact on the music of other Polynesian islands; indeed, music author Peter Manuel called the influence of Hawaiian music a "unifying factor in the development of modern Pacific musics".[137] HP G72-c55DX Laptop Keyboard
Prior to the 15th century AD, Polynesian people fanned out to the east, to the Cook Islands, and from there to other groups such asTahiti and the Marquesas. Their descendants later discovered the islands from Tahiti to Rapa Nui, and later Hawai‘i and New Zealand. SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
Latest research puts the settlement of New Zealand at about 1300 AD. The various Polynesian languages are all part of the Austronesianlanguage family. Many are close enough in terms of vocabulary and grammar to permit communication between some other language speakers. DELL F759C Laptop Keyboard
There are also substantial cultural similarities between the various groups, especially in terms of social organisation, childrearing, as well as horticulture, building and textile technologies; their mythologies in particular demonstrate local reworkings of commonly shared tales. ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
The various Polynesian cultures each have distinct but related oral traditions, that is, legends or myths traditionally considered to recount the history of ancient times (the time of "pō") and the adventures of gods (“atua”) and deified ancestors. DELL Inspiron 1435 Laptop Keyboard
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Hawaii
Tourism is an important part of the Hawaii economy. In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10 billion.[138] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. The summer months and major holidays are the most popular times for outsiders to visit, however, especially when residents of the rest of the United States are looking to escape from cold, SONY VGN-FE855E/H laptop keyboard
winter weather. The Japanese, with their economic and historical ties to Hawaii and the USA as well as relative geographical proximity, are also principal tourists.
Hawaii is home to numerous cultural events. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ220E laptop keyboard
The annual Merrie Monarch Festival is an international Hula competition.[139] The state is also home to the Hawaii International Film Festival, the premier film festival for Pacific rim cinema.[140] Honolulu is also home to the state's long running GLBT film festival, theRainbow Film Festival.[141][142] HP Pavilion dv6-2155dx laptop keyboard
Health
Main article: Hawaii Prepaid Health Care Act
Hawaii's health care system insures 92% (2009) of residents. Under the state's plan, businesses are required to provide insurance to employees who work more than twenty hours per week. SONY VAIO VGN-FS812F laptop keyboard
Heavy regulation of insurance companies helps keep the cost to employers down. Due in part to heavy emphasis on preventive care, Hawaiians require hospital treatment less frequently than the rest of the United States, LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
while total health care expenses (measured as a percentage of state GDP) are substantially lower. Given these achievements, proponents of universal health care elsewhere in the U.S. sometimes use Hawaii as a model for proposed federal and state health care plans. HP Mini 110-3547tu laptop keyboard
Education
Public schools
Main article: Hawai'i Department of Education
Hawaii has the only school system within the United States that is unified statewide. Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard
The Board sets policy and hires the superintendent of schools, who oversees the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is divided into seven districts, four on Oʻahu and one for each of the three other counties. SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard
The main rationale for centralization is to combat inequalities between highly populated Oʻahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas. In most of the United States, schools are funded from local property taxes. SONY 9J.N0U82.B0U laptop keyboard
Educators struggle with children of non-native-English-speaking immigrants, whose cultures are different from those of the mainland (where most course materials and testing standards originate). Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard
Public elementary, middle, and high school test scores in Hawaii are below national averages on tests mandated under the No Child Left Behind Act. Some of the gap has been attributed to the Hawaii Board of Education's requirement that all eligible students take these tests and report all student test scores (other states, SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
Texas and Michigan for example, do not). Results reported in August 2005, indicate that of 282 schools across the state, 185 (2/3) failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in math and reading.[143] SAMSUNG TKB-08B8226 laptop keyboard
On the other hand, the ACT college placement tests show that in 2005, seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9).[144] In the widely accepted SAT examinations, Hawaii's college-bound seniors tend to score below the national average in all categories except mathematics. SONY V072078BS1 laptop keyboard
Private schools
Collectively, independent educational institutions of primary and secondary education have one of the highest percentages of enrollment of any state. During the 2011-2012 school year, Hawaii public and charter schools had an enrollment of 181,213,[145] while private schools had 37,695.[146] SONY VAIO VGN-CR327 laptop keyboard
Private schools thus educated over 17% of the students that school year, nearly three times the approximate national average of 6%.[147] It has four of the largest independent schools:ʻIolani School, Kamehameha Schools, Mid-Pacific Institute, IBM ThinkPad T60 6371 CPU Fan
and Punahou School. The second Buddhist high school in the United States, and first Buddhist high school in Hawaii, Pacific Buddhist Academy, was founded in 2003. The first native controlled public charter school was the Kanu O Ka Aina New Century Charter School. HP Pavilion dv6-2180sm CPU Fan
Independent and charter schools can select their students, while the regular public schools must take all students in their district. The Kamehameha Schools are the only schools in the United States that openly grant admission to students based on ancestry, and the wealthiest schools in the United States, IBM ThinkPad T60 6371 CPU Fan
if not the world, having over nine billion US dollars in estate assets. In 2005, Kamehameha enrolled 5,398 students, 8.4% of the Native Hawaiian children in the state.[148]
See also: List of elementary schools in Hawaii, List of middle schools in Hawaii, and List of high schools in Hawaii HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
Graduates of secondary schools in Hawaii often enter directly into the work force. Some attend colleges and universities on the mainland or other countries, and the rest attend an institution of higher learning in Hawaii. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ4XWN/C CPU Fan
The largest is the University of Hawaii System. It consists of: the research university at Mānoa; two comprehensive campuses Hilo and West Oʻahu; and seven Community Colleges.
Private universities include Brigham Young University–Hawaii, Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii Pacific University, and Wayland Baptist University. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ5MN/B CPU Fan
The state government of Hawaii is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. Toshiba Satellite L350-146 CPU Fan
The executive branch is led by the Governor of Hawaii assisted by the Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, both elected on the same ticket. The governor is the only state public official elected statewide; all others are appointed by the governor. Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol. The official residence of the governor is Washington Place. HP Pavilion dv6-3114tx CPU Fan
The legislative branch consists of the bicameral Hawaii State Legislature, which is composed of the 51-member Hawaii House of Representatives led by the Speaker of the House and the 25-member Hawaii Senateled by the President of the Senate. The Legislature meets at the State Capitol. Toshiba Satellite L505-S6955 CPU Fan
The unified judicial branch of Hawaii is the Hawai'i State Judiciary. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Hawaii, which uses Aliʻiōlani Hale as its chambers. Unique to Hawaii is the lack of municipal governments. HP 441137-001 CPU Fan
All local governments are administered at the county level. The only incorporated area in the state is a consolidated city–county, Honolulu County, which governs the entire island of Oahu. County executives are referred to as mayors: Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The mayor of Hawaii County, mayor of Honolulu, mayor of Kauaʻi and mayor of Maui. The mayors are all elected in nonpartisan races.
Political subdivisionsSONY VAIO VGN-CR32L laptop keyboard
See also: Counties of Hawaii
The movement of the Hawaiian royal family from the Big Island to Maui, and subsequently to Oʻahu, explains why population centers exist where they do today. Kamehameha III chose the largest city, Honolulu, as his capital because of its natural harbor, the present-day Honolulu Harbor. ASUS F3F laptop keyboard
Now the state capital, Honolulu is located along the southeast coast of Oʻahu. The previous capital was Lahaina, Maui, and before that Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. Some major towns are Hilo; Kāneʻohe; Kailua; Pearl City; Waipahu; Kahului; Kailua-Kona. Kīhei; and Līhuʻe. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV26 Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii comprises five counties: Hawaii County, Honolulu County, Kauai County, Kalawao County, and Maui County.
Hawaii is represented in the United States Congress by two Senators and two Representatives. All four are Democrats. Colleen Hanabusa represents the 1st congressional district in the House, representing southeastern Oahu, SONY 9J.N0U82.B0U Laptop Keyboard
including central Honolulu.Tulsi Gabbard represents the 2nd congressional district, representing the rest of the state, which is mainly rural.
Brian Schatz is the senior United States Senator from Hawaii. He was appointed to the office on the December 26, 2012, by Governor Neil Abercrombie, HP Pavilion dv3-2150ep Laptop Keyboard
following the death of former Senator Daniel Inouye. The state's junior senator is Mazie Hirono, the former Representative from the 2nd congressional district. Hirono owns the distinction of being the first Asian American female and first Buddhist senators. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii incurred the biggest seniority shift between the 112th the 113th Congress. The Aloha state went from a delegation with senators who were first and 21st in seniority before Inouye’s death and Senator Daniel Akaka’s retirement, to senators who are 87th and 93rd.[149] HP Pavilion dv5-2135dx CPU Fan
Federal officials in Hawaii are based at the Prince Kūhiō Federal Building near the Aloha Tower and Honolulu Harbor in Honolulu. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internal Revenue Service and the Secret Service maintain their offices there, and the building is also the site of the federal District Court for the District of Hawaii and the United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii. Toshiba Satellite L500-1XC CPU Fan
Since gaining statehood and participating in its first election in 1960, Hawaii has supported Democrats in every presidential election but two (1972 and 1984, both landslide victories for Republicans Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan respectively). During that time, only Minnesota has supported Republican candidates fewer times in presidential elections. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
In 2004, John Kerry won the state's four electoral votes by a margin of nine percentage points with 54% of the vote. Every county supported the Democratic candidate. In 1964, favorite son candidate Senator Hiram Fong of Hawaii sought the Republicanpresidential nomination, while Patsy Mink ran in the Oregon primary in 1972. HP 533736-001 CPU Fan
Honolulu native Barack Obama, then serving as United States Senator from Illinois, was elected the 44th President of the United States on November 4, 2008, and was reelected for a second term on November 6, 2012. Obama had won the Hawaiian Democratic Caucus on February 19, IBM 42X3804 CPU Fan
2008 with 76% of the vote. He was the third Hawaii-born candidate to seek the nomination of a major party and the first presidential nominee from Hawaii.[150][151]
A system of state highways encircles each main island. Only Oʻahu has federal highways, and is the only area outside the contiguous 48 states to have signed Interstate highways. HP Pavilion dv6-2170us CPU Fan
Travel can be slow due to narrow winding roads, and congestion in populated places. Each major island has a public bus system.
Honolulu International Airport (IATA:HNL), which shares runways with the adjacent Hickam Field (IATA:HIK), is the major commercial aviation hub of Hawaii. The commercial aviation airport offers intercontinental service to North America, Asia, ACER Aspire 7720 Series CPU Fan
Australia, and Oceania. Within Hawaii, Hawaiian Airlines, Mokulele Airlines and go! use jets between the larger airports in Honolulu, Līhuʻe, Kahului, Kona and Hilo, while Island Air and Pacific Wings serve smaller airports. These airlines also provide air freight service amongst the islands. Gateway W340UI Series CPU Fan
Until air passenger service became available in the 1920s,[152] private boats were the sole means of traveling between the islands.
Seaflite operated hydrofoils between the major islands in the mid-1970s.[153] The Hawaii Superferry operated between Oʻahu and Maui between December 2007 and March 2009, HP Envy 15 Series CPU Fan
with additional routes planned for other islands. Legal issues over environmental impact statements and protests ended the service, though the company operating Superferry has expressed a wish to begin ferry service again at a future date.[154] HP G42-367TU CPU Fan
Currently there is passenger ferry service in Maui County between Molokaʻi and Maui,[155]and between Lanaʻi and Maui,[156] though neither of these takes vehicles. Currently Norwegian Cruise Lines and Princess Cruises provide passenger cruise shipservice between the larger islands.[157][158] SONY VGN-FE770G Laptop Keyboard
Rail
At one time Hawaii had a network of railroads on each of the larger islands that helped move farm commodities as well as passengers. These railroads were all3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge for the majority; although there were some 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) DELL Vostro 3500 Laptop Keyboard
gauge on some of the smaller islands. Standard US gauge is4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm). The largest railroad by far was the Oahu Railway and Land Company (OR&L) which ran multiple lines from Honolulu across the western and northern part of Oahu.[159] HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
The OR&L was an important player moving troops and goods during World War II. Traffic on this line was busy enough that there were signals on the lines facilitating movement of trains and wigwag signals at some railroad crossings for the protection of motorists. The main line was officially abandoned in 1947; Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard
although part of it was bought by the US Navy and operated until 1970. Thirteen miles (21 km) of track remain and preservationists occasionally run trains over a portion of this line.[159] The Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project aims to add elevated passenger rail on Oahu to relieve highway congestionTOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard
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Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 4231 laptop keyboard
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. ACER Aspire 4736Z laptop keyboard
Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in thePeninsula Campaign,[170][171][172] SONY VAIO VGN-CS17G/R laptop keyboard
Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat.[173] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.[174] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops. FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across thePotomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam nearSharpsburg, SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[173][175] Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[176] SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[177] on December 13, 1862, DELL NSK-D5A01 laptop keyboard
when over 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863.[178] Gen. HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded by his own men during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863).[179] This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. HP Pavilion dv6-2120sp laptop keyboard
Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[180] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
Western theater SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
For more details on this topic, see Western Theater of the American Civil War.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[181] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization. HP Pavilion dv3-2175ee laptop keyboard
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans,[182] HP Pavilion G6-1B87CL laptop keyboard
which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, HP Pavilion G6-1227TU laptop keyboard
although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state.[183] Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.[184] HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged. HP Mini 1151NR laptop keyboard
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh;[185] DELL V110546AS1 laptop keyboard
and the Battle of Vicksburg,[186] which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,[187] DELL NSK-DB301 laptop keyboard
driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.[190] Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, DELL V110546AS1 laptop keyboard
striking both military installations and civilian settlements.[191] The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. SONY VAIO PCG-FR415S laptop keyboard
By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.[189] HP Pavilion dv5-1110em laptop keyboard
Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out inside the tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union.[192] The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.[193] HP Pavilion dv6-2125el laptop keyboard
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him.[194] Its 1864Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war. HP Pavilion dv3-2320es laptop keyboard
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Packard Bell Easynote TK87 laptop keyboard
Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.[195] This was total war not in terms of killing civilians but rather in terms of destroying homes, farms, Lenovo Thinkpad W510 laptop keyboard
and railroads. Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. GeneralsGeorge Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama. Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard
Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during that phase ("Grant's Overland Campaign") of the Eastern campaign. Grant'sbattles of attrition at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor resulted in heavy Union losses, but forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly.[196] HP Mini 110-3109sl laptop keyboard
An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside theBermuda Hundred river bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 65,000 casualties in seven weeks), SONY 147977821 laptop keyboard
kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond.[197] He pinned down the Confederate army in the Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months. ASUS F6S laptop keyboard
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. LENOVO IdeaPad S10e 4068 laptop keyboard
John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Packard Bell Easynote LM82 laptop keyboard
Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.[198]
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.[199] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign.[200] FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomasdealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S6217 laptop keyboard
laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.[201] SONY VAIO VGN-FS215E laptop keyboard
Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. Union forces won a decisive victory at the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, forcing Lee to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, SONY Vaio VGN-AW21VY/Q laptop keyboard
composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west and after a defeat at Sayler's Creek, it became clear to Robert E. Lee that continued fighting against the United States was both tactically and logistically impossible.[202] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Confederacy surrenders
Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House in the village of Appomattox Court House.[203] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, DELL Studio 1747 laptop keyboard
Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.[204] President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, ASUS F6S laptop keyboard
1865, Confederate President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day.[1] On June 23, 1865, Cherokee leader Stand Watie was the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.[205]
Diplomacy LENOVO IdeaPad S10e 4068 laptop keyboard
Main articles: Britain in the American Civil War and France in the American Civil War
Europe in the 1860s was more fragmented than it had been since before the American Revolution. Packard Bell Easynote LM82 laptop keyboard
France was in a weakened state while Britain was still shocked by its own poor performance in the Crimean War.[206] France was unable or unwilling to support either side without Britain, where popular support remained with the Union though elite opinion was more varied. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
They were further distracted by Germany and Italy, who were experiencing unification troubles, and by Russia, who was almost unflinching in their support for the Union.[206][207]
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators.[206][207] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. HP G72-250US Laptop Keyboard
Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war in order to get cotton, but this did not work.[208] HP G72-b10SG Laptop Keyboard
Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard
It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.[208] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.[209]
Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept as minister to Britain for the U.S. and Britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the blockade. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard
The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial ship builders in Britain. The most famous, the CSS Alabama, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain (which had abolished slavery in her its colonies in 1834).[210] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent Affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of a British mail steamer to seize two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
In 1862, the British considered mediation—though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on this.[210] FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S6217 laptop keyboard
Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.[211] SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D laptop keyboard
Victory and aftermath
Results
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215E laptop keyboard
The Freedmen did indeed get their freedom, their citizenship, and control of their lives, their families and their churches.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, such as James McPherson, Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.[212] McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.[213] DELL Studio 1747 laptop keyboard
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.[213] The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, SONY VAIO VPCF12 Laptop Keyboard
after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, DELL 0NU956 Laptop Keyboard
emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated theCopperheads and their peace platform.[217]
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in terms of industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, DELL V110546AS1 Laptop Keyboard
they argue, only delayed defeat.[218][219] Civil War historian Shelby Footeexpressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War."[220]
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it,"people did not will hard enough and long enough to win."[221][222] GATEWAY M-6849 Laptop Keyboard
The black Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. ACER 9J.N1H82.01D Laptop Keyboard
He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict.[223] However, most historians reject the argument.[224] James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, TOSHIBA Qosmio F20 Series Laptop Keyboard
found very strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864-5, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.[225] TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard
Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up – some few deserters – plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out."[226] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. Although Lincoln's approach to emancipation was slow, the Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.[227] HP Pavilion dv4-1102tu Laptop Keyboard
The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. ASUS A3L Laptop Keyboard
Lincoln's naval blockade was 95% effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, ACER Aspire 7745G Laptop Keyboard
along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Costs HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard
The war produced about 1,030,000 casualties (3% of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians.[228]Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20% higher than traditionally estimated, HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
and possibly as high as 850,000.[229][230] The war accounted for roughly as many American deaths as all American deaths in other U.S. wars combined.[231]
Black troops accounted for 10% of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15% of disease deaths but less than 3% of those killed in battle.[2] SONY VAIO VGN-NW235D Laptop Keyboard
Losses can be viewed as high considering that the defeat of Mexico in 1846-48 resulted in fewer than 2,000 soldiers killed in battle. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the use of Napoleonic tactics, DELL JVT97 Laptop Keyboard
such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined the better part of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; DELL Inspiron 510m Laptop Keyboard
they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 18, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40% of that of the North, TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard
a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the US federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.[236] The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, ASUS F6S Laptop Keyboard
not to abolish slavery.[237] Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal.[238] HP Mini 1110TU Laptop Keyboard
Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans.[239] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.[240]
Emancipation ProclamationHP Mini 1109TU Laptop Keyboard
Main article: Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army.[N 8] HP Envy 15-1100 Series Laptop Keyboard
About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.[N 9] SONY VGN-FE41S laptop keyboard
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, LENOVO 25-008389 laptop keyboard
and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game." [246] Copperheadsand some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.[247] Packard Bell Easynote TK81 laptop keyboard
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical Lenovo 04W2236 laptop keyboard
type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.[248] But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. ACER TravelMate 2480 laptop keyboard
When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[249] Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published letter to abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper.[250] Packard Bell Easynote LM85 laptop keyboard
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[251] Lincoln issued his preliminaryEmancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me." [252] TOSHIBA PK13CW10200 laptop keyboard
Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union controlled regions around New Orleans, HP Pavilion dv6-3050ca laptop keyboard
Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.[253]
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.[254] The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France.[255] HP Pavilion DV7-3169wm laptop keyboard
By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent[256]
Reconstruction
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 and continued to 1877.[257] DELL Studio 1747 laptop keyboard
It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the war, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments" to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to guarantee the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu laptop keyboard
and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.[258]
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Radical Republicans demanded strong proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 4231 laptop keyboard
They used the Army to dissolve Southern state governments and hold new elections with Freedmen voting. The result was a Republican coalition that took power in ten states for varying lengths of time, staying in power with the help of U.S. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
Army units and black voters. Grant was elected president in 1868 and continued the Radical policies. Meanwhile the Freedmen's Bureau, started by Lincoln in 1865 to help the freed slaves, played a major role in helping the blacks and arranging work for them. HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard
In opposition paramilitary groups such as the first Ku Klux Klan used violence to thwart these efforts.[259]
The "Liberal Republicans" argued the war goals had been achieved and Reconstruction should end. SONY VAIO VGN-N37GH/B laptop keyboard
They ran a ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated as Grant was reelected. In 1874, Democrats took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The disputed 1876 elections were resolved by the Compromise of 1877, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-N500BL laptop keyboard
which put Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in the White House. He pulled out the last federal troops and the last Republican state governments in the South collapsed, marking the end of Civil War and Reconstruction.[260] SONY Vaio PCG-K37 laptop keyboard
The Civil War is one of the central events in America's collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard
in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.[261] The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
influencing the world.[262] Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause", which shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.[263]
[264] The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, COMPAQ 454954-001 laptop keyboard
to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. [264] Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, HP 7F0844 laptop keyboard
as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Lincoln (2012).
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's "Gilbraltar of the West" at Columbus, SONY Vaio VPC-EB33FM CPU Fan
Kentucky. Grant was rebuffed at Belmont, but cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.[163] Dell Latitude E6510 CPU Fan
In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action.[164] HP Pavilion dv2416us CPU Fan
They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh, (Pittsburg Landing) in Tennessee in April 1862, Toshiba Satellite A100-849 CPU Fan
the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory – the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over.[165] Dell Latitude E6510 CPU Fan
Memphis fell to Union forces and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. In April 1862, US Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederates abandoned the city, which gave the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.[166] HP Pavilion dv6-3306si CPU Fan
The Civil War prompted the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, HP Pavilion dv6-2110ea CPU Fan
knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries.[152] ACER Aspire 5741G Series CPU Fan
Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.[153] IBM ThinkPad T43 2668 CPU Fan
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well,[154] and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimac. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
the Virginia decimated the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it. The Battle of the Ironclads was a draw, but it marks the worldwide transition to ironclad warships.[155] HP Mini 110-3501tu laptop keyboard
The Confederacy lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.[156] SONY VAIO VGN-CR24G laptop keyboard
Blockade runners
Main article: Blockade runners of the American Civil War
British investors built small, very fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. SONY VAIO VGN-N37MH/B laptop keyboard
The ships were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; ACER TravelMate 6292 laptop keyboard
the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released.[157] The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, SONY Vaio VGN-FS23B CPU Fan
the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy. However, DELL Latitude E6410 Series CPU Fan
Wise argues that they provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.[158] HP Pavilion dv7-4170us CPU Fan
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of very few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although was sold to Union traders), HP Pavilion dv6701us CPU Fan
costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were very scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well.[159] The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. HP Pavilion dv9623cl CPU Fan
Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.[160]
To fight an offensive war the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, HP 450933-001 CPU Fan
and raided American merchants ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested.[153] After the war, the U.S. HP Envy 14-1195la CPU Fan
demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.[161]
Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family.[104] It is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Marquesan, Tahitian, Māori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island), and less closely to Samoan, andTongan. DELL DFS541305MH0T CPU Fan
According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 AD[106] followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa-Tonga. Toshiba Satellite U405D-S2870 CPU Fan
Those Polynesians remained in the islands, thereby becoming the Hawaiian people. Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language.[107] Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state, "Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan
and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between the Hawaiian and Society Islands."[108]Before the arrival of Captain James Cook, the Hawaiian language had no written form. That form was developed mainly by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826. They assigned letters from the Latin alphabet that corresponded to the Hawaiian sounds. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad T410i Series CPU Fan
Interest in Hawaiian increased significantly in the late 20th century. With the help of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, specially designated immersion schools were established where all subjects would be taught in Hawaiian. SONY VGN-SZ780E CPU Fan
Also, the University of Hawaii developed a Hawaiian language graduate studies program. Municipal codes were altered to favor Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments. HP Pavilion dv7-6035eo CPU Fan
Hawaiian distinguishes between long and short vowels. In modern practice, vowel length is indicated with a macron (kahakō). Also, Hawaiian uses the glottal stopas a consonant (ʻokina). It is written as a symbol similar to the apostrophe or opening single quote. HP G70-467CL CPU Fan
Hawaiian-language newspapers published from 1834–1948 and traditional native speakers of Hawaiian generally omit the marks in their own writing. The ʻokina and kahakō are intended to help non-native speakers. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
A sign language for the deaf, based on the Hawaiian language, has been in use in the islands since the early 1800s. Hawaiʻi Sign Language is now nearly extinct.
Hawaiian Pidgin ACER Aspire 5930 Laptop Keyboard
Main article: Hawaiian Pidgin
Some locals speak Hawaii Creole English (HCE), often called "pidgin". The lexicon of HCE derives mainly from English but also has words from Hawaiian, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Ilocano and Tagalog. During the 19th century, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
the increase in immigration (mainly from China, Japan, Portugal—and especially from the Azores archipelago—and Spain), SONY VAIO PCG-F16 Laptop Keyboard
caused a variant of English to develop. By the early 20th century pidgin speakers had children who acquired the pidgin as their first language. HCE speakers use some Hawaiian words without those words being considered archaic. HP G62-a60EV Laptop Keyboard
Most place names are retained from Hawaiian, as are some names for plants or animals. For example, tuna fish are often called ahi. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
HCE speakers have modified the meanings of certain English words. For example, "aunty" and "uncle" refer to any adult who is a friend, or to show respect for an elder. Grammar is also different. For example, instead of "It is hot today, isn't it?", Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 Laptop Keyboard
an HCE speaker would say simply "stay hot, eh?" When a word does not come to mind quickly, the term "da kine" refers to any word you cannot think of. Through the surfing boom in Hawaii, HCE has influenced surfer slang. Some HCE expressions, such asbrah and da kine, DELL BFB0505HA CPU Fan
have found their way to other places. The history of Hawaii can be traced through a succession of dominant industries: sandalwood,[119] whaling,[120] sugarcane (seeSugar plantations in Hawaii), pineapple, military, tourism, and education. DELL Studio 1555 Series CPU Fan
Since statehood in 1959, tourism has been the largest industry, contributing 24.3% of the Gross State Product (GSP) in 1997, despite efforts to diversify. The gross output for the state in 2003 was US$47 billion; per capita income for Hawaii residents was US$30,441. Toshiba KFB0505HB CPU Fan
Hawaiian exports include food and apparel. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, however, due to the considerable shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the United States. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Food exports include coffee (see coffee production in Hawaii), macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane, and both honey[121] and honeybees: "by weight, Hawaii's honeybees may be the state's most valuable export."[122] Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
Agricultural sales for 2002, according to the Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service, were US$370.9 million from diversified agriculture, US$100.6 million from pineapple, and US$64.3 million from sugarcane. DELL Inspiron 1720 CPU Fan
Hawaii's relatively constant climate has attracted the Genetically modified foodresearch industry which is able to test three generations of crops in a single year on the islands as compared to one or two on the mainland.[123] HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii was one of the few states to control gasoline prices through a Gas Cap Law. Since oil company profits in Hawaii compared to the mainland U.S. were under scrutiny, the law tied local gasoline prices to those of the mainland. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
It took effect in September 2005 amid price fluctuations caused by Hurricane Katrina, but was suspended in April 2006.
Hawaiian Electric Industries provides electricity (mostly from fossil-fuel power stations) to 95% of the state's population. SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard
As of January 2010, the state's unemployment rate was 6.9%.[124]
In 2009, the United States military spent $12.2 billion in Hawaii, accounting for 18% of spending in the state for that year. 75,000 United States Department of Defense personnel reside in Hawaii.[125] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Hawaii had the fourth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.18 percent.[126]
Taxation ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii has a relatively high state tax burden. In 2003, Hawaii residents had the highest state tax per capita at US$2,838.[citation needed] This is partly because education, health care and social services are all provided directly by the state, as opposed to local government in all other states.[improper synthesis?] HP Compaq NW8440 Laptop Keyboard
Millions of tourists contribute to the tax take by paying the general excise tax and hotel room tax; thus not all taxes come directly from residents. Business leaders, however, consider the state's tax burden too high, contributing to both higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate.[127] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
Cost of living
The cost of living in Hawaii, specifically Honolulu, is quite high compared to most major cities in the United States. However, the cost of living in Honolulu is 6.7% lower than in New York City and 3.6% lower than in San Francisco.[128] ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
These numbers may not take into account certain costs, such as increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States". ACER Aspire 2920Z Laptop Keyboard
While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Hawaii,[129] many merchants exclude Hawaii and Alaska, as well as Puerto Rico and certain other US territories. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
The median home value in Hawaii in the 2000 US Census was $272,700 while the national median home value was less than half of that, at $119,600. Hawaii home values were the highest of all states, SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
including California with a median home value of $211,500.[130] More recent research from the National Association of Realtors places the 2010 median sale price of a single family home in Honolulu, Hawaii at $607,600 and the US median sales price at $173,200. SONY VAIO VGN-CR325 Laptop Keyboard
The sale price of single family homes in Hawaii was the highest of any US city in 2010, just above the "Silicon Valley" area of California ($602,000).[131]
One of the most significant contributors to the high cost of living in Hawaii is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (also known as the Jones Act), which prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports (a practice known as cabotage). HP Mini 210-2036tu Laptop Keyboard
Most U.S. consumer goods are manufactured in East Asia at present, but because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with those goods cannot stop in Honolulu, offload Hawaii-bound goods, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
load mainland-bound Hawaii-manufactured goods, and continue to West Coast ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to the West Coast, where distributors break bulk and send Hawaiian-bound Asian-manufactured goods back west across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships.[132][133] ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Hawaiian consumers ultimately bear the expense of transporting goods again across the Pacific on U.S.-flagged ships subject to the extremely high operating costs imposed by the Jones Act. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard
This also makes Hawaii less competitive with West Coast ports as a shopping destination for tourists from home countries with much higher taxes (like Japan), even though prices for Asian-manufactured goods in theory should be cheaper since Hawaii is much closer to Asia.[134][135] HP Pavilion HDX9494NR laptop keyboard
Culture
The folklore in Hawaii in modern times is a mixture of various aspects of Hawaiian mythology and various urban legends that have been passed on regarding various places in the Hawaiian islands. According to Hawaiian legend, ACER 90.49V07.11D laptop keyboard
night marchers (huaka‘i po in Hawaiian) are ghosts of ancient warriors. Local folklore on the island of Oahu says that one should never carry pork over the Pali Highway connecting Honolulu and Windward Oahu. SONY VAIO VGN-FS980 laptop keyboard
In Paradise Park and the Manoa Falls Hiking Trail, folk legends say you can hear a spectre screaming. Across the street from Kahala Mall is a graveyard. It is said that if you drive past the remaining portion of this graveyard with your windows open, you will feel somebody else is in your car. SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard
The story of the green lady is that of a woman who would visit the gulch of Wahiawa and will take any child that she comes across. contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Compaq Presario CQ71-420SO Laptop Keyboard
Styles like slack-key guitar are well-known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar.[136] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Traditional Hawaiian folk music is a major part of the state's musical heritage. The Hawaiian people have inhabited the islands for centuries and have retained much of their traditional musical knowledge. DELL Inspiron 1435 Laptop Keyboard
Their music is largely religious in nature, and includes chanting and dance music. Hawaiian music has had an enormous impact on the music of other Polynesian islands; indeed, music author Peter Manuel called the influence of Hawaiian music a "unifying factor in the development of modern Pacific musics".[137] HP G72-c55DX Laptop Keyboard
Prior to the 15th century AD, Polynesian people fanned out to the east, to the Cook Islands, and from there to other groups such asTahiti and the Marquesas. Their descendants later discovered the islands from Tahiti to Rapa Nui, and later Hawai‘i and New Zealand. SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard
Latest research puts the settlement of New Zealand at about 1300 AD. The various Polynesian languages are all part of the Austronesianlanguage family. Many are close enough in terms of vocabulary and grammar to permit communication between some other language speakers. DELL F759C Laptop Keyboard
There are also substantial cultural similarities between the various groups, especially in terms of social organisation, childrearing, as well as horticulture, building and textile technologies; their mythologies in particular demonstrate local reworkings of commonly shared tales. ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
The various Polynesian cultures each have distinct but related oral traditions, that is, legends or myths traditionally considered to recount the history of ancient times (the time of "pō") and the adventures of gods (“atua”) and deified ancestors. DELL Inspiron 1435 Laptop Keyboard
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Hawaii
Tourism is an important part of the Hawaii economy. In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10 billion.[138] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. The summer months and major holidays are the most popular times for outsiders to visit, however, especially when residents of the rest of the United States are looking to escape from cold, SONY VGN-FE855E/H laptop keyboard
winter weather. The Japanese, with their economic and historical ties to Hawaii and the USA as well as relative geographical proximity, are also principal tourists.
Hawaii is home to numerous cultural events. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ220E laptop keyboard
The annual Merrie Monarch Festival is an international Hula competition.[139] The state is also home to the Hawaii International Film Festival, the premier film festival for Pacific rim cinema.[140] Honolulu is also home to the state's long running GLBT film festival, theRainbow Film Festival.[141][142] HP Pavilion dv6-2155dx laptop keyboard
Health
Main article: Hawaii Prepaid Health Care Act
Hawaii's health care system insures 92% (2009) of residents. Under the state's plan, businesses are required to provide insurance to employees who work more than twenty hours per week. SONY VAIO VGN-FS812F laptop keyboard
Heavy regulation of insurance companies helps keep the cost to employers down. Due in part to heavy emphasis on preventive care, Hawaiians require hospital treatment less frequently than the rest of the United States, LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
while total health care expenses (measured as a percentage of state GDP) are substantially lower. Given these achievements, proponents of universal health care elsewhere in the U.S. sometimes use Hawaii as a model for proposed federal and state health care plans. HP Mini 110-3547tu laptop keyboard
Education
Public schools
Main article: Hawai'i Department of Education
Hawaii has the only school system within the United States that is unified statewide. Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard
The Board sets policy and hires the superintendent of schools, who oversees the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is divided into seven districts, four on Oʻahu and one for each of the three other counties. SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard
The main rationale for centralization is to combat inequalities between highly populated Oʻahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas. In most of the United States, schools are funded from local property taxes. SONY 9J.N0U82.B0U laptop keyboard
Educators struggle with children of non-native-English-speaking immigrants, whose cultures are different from those of the mainland (where most course materials and testing standards originate). Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard
Public elementary, middle, and high school test scores in Hawaii are below national averages on tests mandated under the No Child Left Behind Act. Some of the gap has been attributed to the Hawaii Board of Education's requirement that all eligible students take these tests and report all student test scores (other states, SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
Texas and Michigan for example, do not). Results reported in August 2005, indicate that of 282 schools across the state, 185 (2/3) failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in math and reading.[143] SAMSUNG TKB-08B8226 laptop keyboard
On the other hand, the ACT college placement tests show that in 2005, seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9).[144] In the widely accepted SAT examinations, Hawaii's college-bound seniors tend to score below the national average in all categories except mathematics. SONY V072078BS1 laptop keyboard
Private schools
Collectively, independent educational institutions of primary and secondary education have one of the highest percentages of enrollment of any state. During the 2011-2012 school year, Hawaii public and charter schools had an enrollment of 181,213,[145] while private schools had 37,695.[146] SONY VAIO VGN-CR327 laptop keyboard
Private schools thus educated over 17% of the students that school year, nearly three times the approximate national average of 6%.[147] It has four of the largest independent schools:ʻIolani School, Kamehameha Schools, Mid-Pacific Institute, IBM ThinkPad T60 6371 CPU Fan
and Punahou School. The second Buddhist high school in the United States, and first Buddhist high school in Hawaii, Pacific Buddhist Academy, was founded in 2003. The first native controlled public charter school was the Kanu O Ka Aina New Century Charter School. HP Pavilion dv6-2180sm CPU Fan
Independent and charter schools can select their students, while the regular public schools must take all students in their district. The Kamehameha Schools are the only schools in the United States that openly grant admission to students based on ancestry, and the wealthiest schools in the United States, IBM ThinkPad T60 6371 CPU Fan
if not the world, having over nine billion US dollars in estate assets. In 2005, Kamehameha enrolled 5,398 students, 8.4% of the Native Hawaiian children in the state.[148]
See also: List of elementary schools in Hawaii, List of middle schools in Hawaii, and List of high schools in Hawaii HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
Graduates of secondary schools in Hawaii often enter directly into the work force. Some attend colleges and universities on the mainland or other countries, and the rest attend an institution of higher learning in Hawaii. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ4XWN/C CPU Fan
The largest is the University of Hawaii System. It consists of: the research university at Mānoa; two comprehensive campuses Hilo and West Oʻahu; and seven Community Colleges.
Private universities include Brigham Young University–Hawaii, Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii Pacific University, and Wayland Baptist University. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ5MN/B CPU Fan
The state government of Hawaii is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. Toshiba Satellite L350-146 CPU Fan
The executive branch is led by the Governor of Hawaii assisted by the Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, both elected on the same ticket. The governor is the only state public official elected statewide; all others are appointed by the governor. Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol. The official residence of the governor is Washington Place. HP Pavilion dv6-3114tx CPU Fan
The legislative branch consists of the bicameral Hawaii State Legislature, which is composed of the 51-member Hawaii House of Representatives led by the Speaker of the House and the 25-member Hawaii Senateled by the President of the Senate. The Legislature meets at the State Capitol. Toshiba Satellite L505-S6955 CPU Fan
The unified judicial branch of Hawaii is the Hawai'i State Judiciary. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Hawaii, which uses Aliʻiōlani Hale as its chambers. Unique to Hawaii is the lack of municipal governments. HP 441137-001 CPU Fan
All local governments are administered at the county level. The only incorporated area in the state is a consolidated city–county, Honolulu County, which governs the entire island of Oahu. County executives are referred to as mayors: Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
The mayor of Hawaii County, mayor of Honolulu, mayor of Kauaʻi and mayor of Maui. The mayors are all elected in nonpartisan races.
Political subdivisionsSONY VAIO VGN-CR32L laptop keyboard
See also: Counties of Hawaii
The movement of the Hawaiian royal family from the Big Island to Maui, and subsequently to Oʻahu, explains why population centers exist where they do today. Kamehameha III chose the largest city, Honolulu, as his capital because of its natural harbor, the present-day Honolulu Harbor. ASUS F3F laptop keyboard
Now the state capital, Honolulu is located along the southeast coast of Oʻahu. The previous capital was Lahaina, Maui, and before that Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. Some major towns are Hilo; Kāneʻohe; Kailua; Pearl City; Waipahu; Kahului; Kailua-Kona. Kīhei; and Līhuʻe. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV26 Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii comprises five counties: Hawaii County, Honolulu County, Kauai County, Kalawao County, and Maui County.
Hawaii is represented in the United States Congress by two Senators and two Representatives. All four are Democrats. Colleen Hanabusa represents the 1st congressional district in the House, representing southeastern Oahu, SONY 9J.N0U82.B0U Laptop Keyboard
including central Honolulu.Tulsi Gabbard represents the 2nd congressional district, representing the rest of the state, which is mainly rural.
Brian Schatz is the senior United States Senator from Hawaii. He was appointed to the office on the December 26, 2012, by Governor Neil Abercrombie, HP Pavilion dv3-2150ep Laptop Keyboard
following the death of former Senator Daniel Inouye. The state's junior senator is Mazie Hirono, the former Representative from the 2nd congressional district. Hirono owns the distinction of being the first Asian American female and first Buddhist senators. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Hawaii incurred the biggest seniority shift between the 112th the 113th Congress. The Aloha state went from a delegation with senators who were first and 21st in seniority before Inouye’s death and Senator Daniel Akaka’s retirement, to senators who are 87th and 93rd.[149] HP Pavilion dv5-2135dx CPU Fan
Federal officials in Hawaii are based at the Prince Kūhiō Federal Building near the Aloha Tower and Honolulu Harbor in Honolulu. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internal Revenue Service and the Secret Service maintain their offices there, and the building is also the site of the federal District Court for the District of Hawaii and the United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii. Toshiba Satellite L500-1XC CPU Fan
Since gaining statehood and participating in its first election in 1960, Hawaii has supported Democrats in every presidential election but two (1972 and 1984, both landslide victories for Republicans Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan respectively). During that time, only Minnesota has supported Republican candidates fewer times in presidential elections. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
In 2004, John Kerry won the state's four electoral votes by a margin of nine percentage points with 54% of the vote. Every county supported the Democratic candidate. In 1964, favorite son candidate Senator Hiram Fong of Hawaii sought the Republicanpresidential nomination, while Patsy Mink ran in the Oregon primary in 1972. HP 533736-001 CPU Fan
Honolulu native Barack Obama, then serving as United States Senator from Illinois, was elected the 44th President of the United States on November 4, 2008, and was reelected for a second term on November 6, 2012. Obama had won the Hawaiian Democratic Caucus on February 19, IBM 42X3804 CPU Fan
2008 with 76% of the vote. He was the third Hawaii-born candidate to seek the nomination of a major party and the first presidential nominee from Hawaii.[150][151]
A system of state highways encircles each main island. Only Oʻahu has federal highways, and is the only area outside the contiguous 48 states to have signed Interstate highways. HP Pavilion dv6-2170us CPU Fan
Travel can be slow due to narrow winding roads, and congestion in populated places. Each major island has a public bus system.
Honolulu International Airport (IATA:HNL), which shares runways with the adjacent Hickam Field (IATA:HIK), is the major commercial aviation hub of Hawaii. The commercial aviation airport offers intercontinental service to North America, Asia, ACER Aspire 7720 Series CPU Fan
Australia, and Oceania. Within Hawaii, Hawaiian Airlines, Mokulele Airlines and go! use jets between the larger airports in Honolulu, Līhuʻe, Kahului, Kona and Hilo, while Island Air and Pacific Wings serve smaller airports. These airlines also provide air freight service amongst the islands. Gateway W340UI Series CPU Fan
Until air passenger service became available in the 1920s,[152] private boats were the sole means of traveling between the islands.
Seaflite operated hydrofoils between the major islands in the mid-1970s.[153] The Hawaii Superferry operated between Oʻahu and Maui between December 2007 and March 2009, HP Envy 15 Series CPU Fan
with additional routes planned for other islands. Legal issues over environmental impact statements and protests ended the service, though the company operating Superferry has expressed a wish to begin ferry service again at a future date.[154] HP G42-367TU CPU Fan
Currently there is passenger ferry service in Maui County between Molokaʻi and Maui,[155]and between Lanaʻi and Maui,[156] though neither of these takes vehicles. Currently Norwegian Cruise Lines and Princess Cruises provide passenger cruise shipservice between the larger islands.[157][158] SONY VGN-FE770G Laptop Keyboard
Rail
At one time Hawaii had a network of railroads on each of the larger islands that helped move farm commodities as well as passengers. These railroads were all3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge for the majority; although there were some 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) DELL Vostro 3500 Laptop Keyboard
gauge on some of the smaller islands. Standard US gauge is4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm). The largest railroad by far was the Oahu Railway and Land Company (OR&L) which ran multiple lines from Honolulu across the western and northern part of Oahu.[159] HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
The OR&L was an important player moving troops and goods during World War II. Traffic on this line was busy enough that there were signals on the lines facilitating movement of trains and wigwag signals at some railroad crossings for the protection of motorists. The main line was officially abandoned in 1947; Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard
although part of it was bought by the US Navy and operated until 1970. Thirteen miles (21 km) of track remain and preservationists occasionally run trains over a portion of this line.[159] The Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project aims to add elevated passenger rail on Oahu to relieve highway congestionTOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard
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