Parthenon
The Parthenon (Greek: Παρθενών) is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the maiden goddessAthena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron deity. Its construction began in 447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It was completed in 438 BC, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
although decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the culmination of the development of the Doric order. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy, western civilization[3] and one of the world' s ACER NSK-H3V1D Laptop Keyboard
greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.[4] TOSHIBA KFRSBA114A Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon itself replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon, that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. The temple is archaeoastronomically aligned to the Hyades.[5] HP Pavilion DV7-3162nr Laptop Keyboard
Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as a treasury. For a time, it also served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the 5th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
After the Ottoman conquest, SONY VAIO VGN-CR150F Laptop Keyboard
it was turned into a mosque in the early 1460s. On 26 September 1687, an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment. The resulting explosion severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed some of the surviving sculptures, with the permission of the Ottoman Empire. These sculptures, now known as the Elgin Marbles or the Parthenon Marbles, were sold in 1816 to theBritish Museum in London, SAMSUNG Q330-JA02 Laptop Keyboard
where they are now displayed. Since 1983 (on the initiative of Culture Minister Melina Mercouri), the Greek government has been committed to the return of the sculptures to Greece.[6]
The origin of the Parthenon's name is from the Greek word "παρθενών" (parthenon), HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
which referred to the "unmarried women's apartments" in a house and in the Parthenon's case seems to have been used at first only for a particular room of the temple;[7] it is debated which room this is and how the room acquired its name. The Liddell-Scott-Jones Greek-English Lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
Jamauri D. Green holds that the parthenon was the room in which the peplos presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Festival was woven by the arrephoroi, a group of four young girls chosen to serve Athena each year.[8] TOSHIBA Qosmio G40/97D Laptop Keyboard
Christopher Pelling asserts that Athena Parthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that of Athena Polias.[9] According to this theory, the name of Parthenon means the "HP Mini 110-3018cl Laptop Keyboard
temple of the virgin goddess" and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos that was associated with the temple.[10] The epithet parthénos (Greek: παρθένος), whose origin is also unclear,[11] meant "maiden, girl", but also "virgin, unmarried woman"[12] and was especially used for Artemis, the goddess of wild animals, DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard
the hunt, and vegetation, and for Athena, the goddess of strategy and tactics, handicraft, and practical reason.[13] It has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the maidens (parthenoi), whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city.[14] SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH Laptop Keyboard
The first instance in which Parthenon definitely refers to the entire building is found in the 4th-century BC orator Demosthenes. In 5th-century building accounts, the structure is simply called ho naos ("the temple"). The architects Mnesikles and Callicrates are said to have called the building Hekatompodos("the hundred footer") HP AEUT3U00140 Laptop Keyboard
in their lost treatise on Athenian architecture,[15] and, in the 4th century and later, the building was referred to as the Hekatompedosor the Hekatompedon as well as the Parthenon; the 1st-century AD writer Plutarch referred to the building as the Hekatompedon Parthenon.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-AW11S/B laptop keyboard
Because the Parthenon was dedicated to Greek goddess Athena, it has sometimes been referred to as the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, particularly during the 19th century.[17] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Function
Although the Parthenon is architecturally a temple and is usually called so, it is not really one in the conventional sense of the word.[18] A small shrine has been excavated within the building, on the site of an older sanctuary probably dedicated to Athena as a way to get closer to the goddess,[18] but the Parthenon never hosted the cult of Athena Polias, HP G62-b55SM laptop keyboard
patron of Athens: the cult image, which was bathed in the sea and to which was presented the peplos, was an olivewood xoanon, located at an older altar on the northern side of the Acropolis.[19] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The colossal statue of Athena by Phidias was not related to any cult[20] and never inspired any recorded religious fervour.[19] It did not seem to have any priestess, altar nor cult name.[21] According to Thucydides, HP G62-355CA laptop keyboard
Pericles once referred to the statue as a gold reserve, stressing that it "contained forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable".[22] The Athenian statesman thus implies that the metal, obtained from contemporary coinage,[23] HP Mini 110-3018cl laptop keyboard
could be used again without any impiety.[21] The Parthenon should then be viewed as a grand setting for the votive statue of Phidias rather than a cult site.[24] It is said in many writings of the Greeks that there were many treasures stored inside, such as Persian swords, and small statue figures made of precious metals. HP Pavilion dv6-2106ea laptop keyboard
The first endeavor to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon (c. 490–488 BC) upon a muscular limestone foundation that extended and leveled the southern part of the Acropolis summit. This building replaced a hekatompedon (meaning "hundred-footer")HP Mini 210-2037tu laptop keyboard
and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias ("of the city"). The Older or Pre-Parthenon, as it is frequently referred to, was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC and razed the Acropolis.[25][26] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The existence of the proto-Parthenon and its destruction were known from Herodotus,[27] and the drums of its columns were plainly visible built into the curtain wall north of the Erechtheum. Further material evidence of this structure was revealed with the excavations of Panagiotis Kavvadias of 1885–90. HP Mini 110-3108sa Laptop Keyboard
The findings of this dig allowed Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to assert that there existed a distinct substructure to the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I by Dörpfeld, IBM Thinkpad R61i Laptop Keyboard
not immediately below the present edifice as had been previously assumed.[28] Dörpfeld's observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consisted of two steps of Poros limestone, the same as the foundations, and a top step of Karrha limestone that was covered by the lowest step of the Periclean Parthenon. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
This platform was smaller and slightly to the north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a wholly different building, Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
now wholly covered over. This picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report on the 1885–90 excavations, indicating that the substructure was contemporary with the Kimonian walls, and implying a later date for the first temple.[29] HP HDX18-1101EG laptop keyboard
If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, it invites the question of why the site was left a ruin for thirty-three years. One argument involves the oath sworn by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC[30] COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
declaring that the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians would not be rebuilt, an oath from which the Athenians were only absolved with the Peace of Callias in 450.[31] The mundane fact of the cost of reconstructing Athens after the Persian sack is at least as likely a cause. However, COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
the excavations of Bert Hodge Hill led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon, begun in the period of Kimonafter 468 BC.[32] Hill claimed that the Karrha limestone step Dörpfeld thought was the highest of Parthenon I was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate dimensions Hill calculated at 23.51 by 66.888 metres (77.13 × 219.45 ft). HP COMPAQ NX7300 laptop keyboard
One difficulty in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information. HP COMPAQ NX7400 laptop keyboard
An attempt to make sense of the potsherds found on the acropolis came with the two-volume study by Graef and Langlotz published 1925–33.[33] ACER K052030A1 laptop keyboard
This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attempt to supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier 495 BC, contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld.[34] TOSHIBA Satellite 1410-S173 laptop keyboard
Further Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto-Parthenons, and that the only pre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1935.[35] COMPAQ Presario CQ61-100 laptop keyboard
In the mid-5th century BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the Delian League and Athens was the greatest cultural centre of its time, Periclesinitiated an ambitious building project that lasted the entire second half of the century. HP Pavilion dv4-1199ea laptop keyboard
The most important buildings visible on the Acropolis today—the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the temple of Athena Nike—were erected during this period. The Parthenon was built under the general supervision of the artist Phidias, TOSHIBA Satellite C650-152 laptop keyboard
who also had charge of the sculptural decoration. The architects, Ictinos and Callicrates, began in 447 BC, and the building was substantially completed by 432, but work on the decorations continued until at least 431. SAMSUNG Q330 Series laptop keyboard
Some of the financial accounts for the Parthenon survive and show that the largest single expense was transporting the stone from Mount Pentelicus, about 16 kilometres from Athens, to the Acropolis. The funds were partly drawn from the treasury of the Delian League, which was moved from the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delos to the Acropolis in 454 BC. TOSHIBA Satellite l20-204 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon is a peripteral octostyle Doric temple with Ionic architectural features. It stands on a platform or stylobateof three steps. In common with other Greek temples, it is of post and lintel construction and is surrounded by columns ("peripteral") carrying an entablature. TOSHIBA Satellite A300-ST3511 laptop keyboard
There are eight columns at either end ("octostyle") and seventeen on the sides. There is a double row of columns at either end. The colonnade surrounds an inner masonry structure, the cella which is divided into two compartments. At either end of the building the gable is finished with a triangular pediment originally filled with sculpture. ACER K052030A1 laptop keyboard
The columns are of the Doric Order, with simple capitals, fluted shafts and no bases. Above the architrave of the entablature is a frieze of carved pictorial panels (metopes), separated by formal architectural triglyphs, typical of the Doric Order. TOSHIBA Satellite L750D-BT5N22 laptop keyboard
Around the cella and across the lintels of the inner columns runs a continuous sculptured frieze in low relief. This element of the architecture is Ionic in style, rather than Doric.[36]
Measured at the stylobate, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon are 69.5 metres by 30.9 metres (228.0 x 101.4 ft). Thecella was 29.8 metres long by 19.2 metres wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft), HP 9J.N8682.501 Laptop Keyboard
with internal colonnades in two tiers, structurally necessary to support the roof. On the exterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in diameter and are 10.4 metres (34.1 ft) high. The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter. Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon had 46 outer pillars and 23 inner pillars in total. The stylobate has an upward curvature towards its centre of 60 millimetres (2.36 in) on the east and west ends, and of 110 millimetres (4.33 in) on the sides. The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as imbrices and tegulae. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon, is regarded as the finest example of Greek architecture. The temple, wrote John Julius Cooper, "enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. Even in antiquity, its architectural refinements were legendary, COMPAQ NSK-H5401 Laptop Keyboard
especially the subtle correspondence between the curvature of the stylobate, the taper of the naos walls and theentasis of the columns."[37] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Entasis refers to the slight diminution in diameter of the columns as they rise, though the observable effect on the Parthenon is considerably more subtle than on earlier temples. The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand. HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard
As in many other classical Greek temples,[38] it has a slight parabolic upward curvature intended to shed rainwater and reinforce the building against earthquakes. The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards, but they actually lean slightly inwards so that if they carried on, HP G61-100SA Laptop Keyboard
they would meet almost exactly a mile above the centre of the Parthenon; since they are all the same height, the curvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the architrave and roof above: "DELL Inspiron N4110 Laptop Keyboard
All follow the rule of being built to delicate curves," Gorham Stevens observed when pointing out that, in addition, the west front was built at a slightly higher level than that of the east front.[39] It is not universally agreed what the intended effect of these "optical refinements" was; they may serve as a sort of "reverse optical illusion".[40] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
As the Greeks may have been aware, two parallel lines appear to bow, or curve outward, when intersected by converging lines. In this case, the ceiling and floor of the temple may seem to bow in the presence of the surrounding angles of the building. Striving for perfection, ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
the designers may have added these curves, compensating for the illusion by creating their own curves, thus negating this effect and allowing the temple to be seen as they intended. It is also suggested that it was to enliven what might have appeared an inert mass in the case of a building without curves, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
but the comparison ought to be with the Parthenon's more obviously curved predecessors than with a notional rectilinear temple.
Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, conclude that many of its proportions approximate the golden ratio. The Parthenon's façade as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere can be circumscribed by golden rectangles.[41] HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
This view that the golden ratio was employed in the design has been disputed in more recent studies.[42]
The cella of the Parthenon housed the chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos sculpted by Phidias and dedicated in 439 or 438 BC. DELL Inspiron N4110 Laptop Keyboard
The decorative stonework was originally highly coloured.[43] The temple was dedicated to Athena at that time, though construction continued until almost the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By the year 438, TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard
the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above the exterior colonnade, and of the Ionic frieze around the upper portion of the walls of the cella, had been completed. The richness of the Parthenon's frieze and metope decoration is in agreement with the function of the temple as a treasury. In the opisthodomus (the back room of the cella) TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard
were stored the monetary contributions of the Delian League, of which Athens was the leading member.
The frieze of the Parthenon's entablature contained ninety-two metopes. They were carved in high relief, a practice employed until then only in treasuries (buildings used to keep votive gifts to the gods).[citation needed] SONY VAIO VGN-CR410E laptop keyboard
According to the building records, the metope sculptures date to the years 446–440 BC. Their design is attributed to the sculptor Kalamis. The metopes of the east side of the Parthenon, above the main entrance, depict the Gigantomachy (mythical battles between the Olympian gods and the Giants). SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
The metopes of the west end show Amazonomachy (mythical battle of the Athenians against the Amazons). The metopes of the south side show the Thessalian Centauromachy (battle of the Lapiths aided by Theseus against the half-man, half-horse Centaurs). Metopes 13–21 are missing, but drawings from 1674 attributed to Jaques Carrey indicate a series of humans; DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
these have been variously interpreted as scenes from the Lapith wedding, scenes from the early history of Athens and various myths.[44] On the north side of the Parthenon, the metopes are poorly preserved, but the subject seems to be the sack of Troy. HP Pavilion DV7t-3300 CTO laptop keyboard
The metopes present examples of the Severe Style in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of the corporal movements to the contours and not to the muscles, and in the presence of pronounced veins in the figures of theCentauromachy. Several of the metopes still remain on the building, HP G56-130SA laptop keyboard
but, with the exception of those on the northern side, they are severely damaged. Some of them are located at the Acropolis Museum, others are in the British Museum, and one is at the Louvre museum. HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five metopes of the Parthenon in the south wall of the Acropolis, which had been extended when the Acropolis was used as a fortress. According to Eleftherotypia daily, Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
the archaeologists claimed the metopes had been placed there in the 18th century, when the Acropolis wall was being repaired. The experts discovered the metopes, while processing 2250 photos with modern photographic methods, HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
as the white Pentelic marble they are made of differed from the other stone of the wall. It was previously presumed that the missing metopes were destroyed during the Morosini explosion of the Parthenon, in 1687.[45] SONY VAIO VGN-FS812F laptop keyboard
The most characteristic feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic frieze running around the exterior walls of the cella, which is the inside structure of the Parthenon. The bas-relief frieze was carved in situ; it is dated in 442 BC-438 BC. IBM ThinkPad T40-2374 laptop keyboard
One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the Panathenaic procession from the Dipylon Gate in theKerameikos to the Acropolis. In this procession held every year, with a special procession taking place every four years, Athenians and foreigners were participating to honour the goddess Athena, offering sacrifices and a new peplos (dress woven by selected noble Athenian girls called ergastines). HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
Joan Breton Connelly has recently argued for another interpretation of the frieze, in which she attempts to prove that the iconography of the frieze is based on Greek mythology. This interpretation postulates that the scenes depict the sacrifice ofPandora, youngest daughter of Erechtheus, to Athena. HP Pavilion DV7-3060us laptop keyboard
This human sacrifice was demanded by Athena to save the city fromEumolpus, king of Eleusis, who had gathered an army to attack Athens.[46] DELL Inspiron N4110 laptop keyboard
The east pediment narrates the birth of Athena from the head of her father, Zeus. According to Greek mythology, Zeus gave birth to Athena after a terrible headache prompted him to summon Hephaestus' (the god of fire and the forge) assistance. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
To alleviate the pain, he ordered Hephaestus to strike him with his forging hammer, and when he did, Zeus's head split open and out popped the goddess Athena in full armour. The sculptural arrangement depicts the moment of Athena's birth. HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
Unfortunately, the centrepieces of the pediment were destroyed even before Jacques Carrey created otherwise useful documentary drawings in 1674, so all reconstructions are subject to conjecture and speculation. The main Olympian gods must have stood around Zeus and Athena watching the wondrous event, SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
with Hephaestus and Hera probably near them. The Carrey drawings are instrumental in reconstructing the sculptural arrangement beyond the center figures to the north and south.[47] DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
The west pediment faced the Propylaia and depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon during their competition for the honor of becoming the city's patron. Athena and Poseidon appear at the center of the composition, FUJITSU Siemens M1010 laptop keyboard
diverging from one another in strong diagonal forms, with the goddess holding the olive tree and the god of the sea raising his trident to strike the earth. At their flanks, they are framed by two active groups of horses pulling chariots, while a crowd of legendary personalities from Athenian mythology fills the space out to the acute corners of the pediment. ACER TravelMate 3012 laptop keyboard
The work on the pediments lasted from 438 to 432 BC, and the sculptures of the Parthenon pediments are some of the finest examples of classical Greek art. The figures are sculpted in natural movement with bodies full of vital energy that bursts through their flesh, as the flesh in turn bursts through their thin clothing. COMPAQ Presario R3000 laptop keyboard
The thin chitons reveal the body underneath as the focus of the composition. The distinction between gods and humans is blurred in the conceptual interplay between the idealism and naturalism bestowed on the stone by the sculptors.[48] HP G61-420SI laptop keyboard
The pediments no longer exist.
A major fire broke out in the Parthenon shortly after the middle of the third century AD[51][52] which destroyed the Parthenon's roof and much of the sanctuary's interior.[53] Repairs were made in the fourth century AD, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
possibly during the reign of Julian the Apostate.[54] A new wooden roof overlaid with clay tiles was installed to cover the sanctuary. It sloped at a greater incline than the original roof and left the building's wings exposed.[53] TOSHIBA Satellite L775-S7243 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon survived as a temple dedicated to Athena for close to a thousand years until Theodosius II decreed in 435 AD that all pagan temples in theByzantine Empire be closed.[55] At some point in the fifth century, SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard
Athena's great cult image was looted by one of the emperors and taken to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the siege of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 AD.[56] TOSHIBA Satellite A200 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church in the final decade of the sixth century AD[57] to become the Church of the Parthenos Maria (Virgin Mary), or the Church of the Theotokos (Mother of God). The orientation of the building was changed to face towards the east; HP Pavilion dv6-2123el laptop keyboard
the main entrance was placed at the building's western end and the Christian altar and iconostasis were situated towards the building's eastern side adjacent to an apse built where the temple'spronaos was formerly located.[58][59][60] DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
A large central portal with surrounding side-doors was made in the wall dividing the cella, which became the church'snave, from the rear chamber, the church's narthex.[58] The spaces between the columns of the opisthodomus and the peristyle were walled up though a number of doorways still permitted access.[58] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E125 laptop keyboard
Icons were painted on the walls and many Christian inscriptions were carved into the Parthenon's columns.[54] These renovations inevitably led to the removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures. Those depicting gods were either possibly re-interpreted according to a Christian theme, or removed and destroyed.[citation needed] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage destination in the Eastern Roman Empire after Constantinople, Ephesos and Thessalonica.[61]In 1018, the emperor Basil II went on a pilgrimage to Athens directly after his final victory over the Bulgarians for the sole purpose of worshipping at the Parthenon.[61] ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
In medieval Greek accounts it is called the Temple of Theotokos Atheniotissa and often indirectly referred to, as famous without explaining exactly which temple they were referring to, thus establishing that it was indeed well known.[61] SONY VAIO VGN-CS215J/W laptop keyboard
At the time of the Latin occupation, it became for about 250 years a Roman Catholic church of Our Lady. During this period a tower, used either as a watchtower or bell tower, containing a spiral staircase was constructed at the southwest corner of the cella and vaulted tombs were built beneath the Parthenon's floor.[62] HP Pavilion dv6-2110ei laptop keyboard
In 1456, Ottoman Turkish forces invaded Athens and laid siege to a Florentine army defending the Acropolis until June 1458, when it surrendered to the Turks.[63] The Turks may have briefly restored the Parthenon to the Greek Orthodox Christians for continued use as a church.[64] HP Mini 1140NR laptop keyboard
Some time before the close of the fifteenth century the Parthenon became a mosque.[65][66] The precise circumstances under which the Turks appropriated it for use as a mosque are unclear; one account states that Mehmed II ordered its conversion as punishment for an Athenian plot against Ottoman rule.[67] SONY VAIO VGN-N27GH/B laptop keyboard
The apse became a mihrab,[68] the tower previously constructed during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon was extended upwards to become a minaret,[69] aminbar was installed,[58] the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover icons of Christian saints along with other Christian imagery.[70] HP Pavilion dv5-1005tx laptop keyboard
Despite the alterations accompanying the Parthenon's conversion into a church and subsequently a mosque, its structure had remained basically intact.[71] In 1667 the Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi expressed marvel at the Parthenon's sculptures and figuratively described the building as "like some impregnable fortress not made by human agency."[72] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-209TU laptop keyboard
He composed a poetic supplication that it, as "a work less of human hands than of Heaven itself, should remain standing for all time."[73] The French artist Jacques Carrey in 1674 visited the Acropolis and sketched the Parthenon's sculptural decorations.[74] TOSHIBA Satellite a10-501 laptop keyboard
Early in 1687, an engineer named Plantier sketched the Parthenon for the Frenchman Graviers d’Ortières.[53] These depictions, particularly those made by Carrey, provide important, and sometimes the only, evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its various sculptures prior to the devastation it suffered in late 1687 and the subsequent looting of its art objects.[74] HP 576835-001 laptop keyboard
In 1687, the Parthenon was extensively damaged in the greatest catastrophe to befall it in its long history.[54] TheVenetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini to attack Athens and capture the Acropolis. ASUS F81 laptop keyboard
The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a gunpowder magazine – despite having been forewarned of the dangers of this use by the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea – and as a shelter for members of the local Turkish community.[75] HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
On 26 September a Venetian mortar round, fired from the Hill of Philopappus, blew up the magazine, and the building was partly destroyed.[76] The explosion blew out the building's central portion and caused the cella's walls to crumble into rubble.[71] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Greek architect and archaeologist Kornilia Chatziaslani writes that "...three of the sanctuary’s four walls nearly collapsed and three-fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell. Nothing of the roof apparently remained in place. TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
Six columns from the south side fell, eight from the north, as well as whatever remained from eastern porch, except for one column. The columns brought down with them the enormous marble architraves, triglyphs and metopes."[53] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
About three hundred people were killed in the explosion, which showered marble fragments over nearby Turkish defenders[75] and caused large fires that burned until the following day and consumed many homes.[53] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-205EF laptop keyboard
Accounts written at the time conflict over whether this destruction was deliberate or accidental; one such account, written by the German officer Sobievolski, states that a Turkish deserter revealed to Morosini the use to which the Turks had put the Parthenon expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historic importance. ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
Morosini was said to have responded by directing his artillery to aim at the Parthenon.[53][75] Subsequently Morosini sought to loot sculptures from the ruin and caused further damage in the process. Sculptures of Poseidon and Athena's horses fell to the ground and smashed as his soldiers tried to detach them from the building's west pediment.[59][77] SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
The following year, the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid a confrontation with a large force the Turks had assembled at Chalcis; at that time, the Venetians had considered blowing up what remained of the Parthenon along with the rest of the Acropolis to deny its further use as a fortification to the Turks, but that idea was not pursued.[75] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
After the Turks had recaptured the Acropolis they used some of the rubble produced by this explosion to erect a smaller mosque within the shell of the ruined Parthenon.[78] For the next century and a half, portions of the remaining structure were looted for building material and any remaining objects of value.[79] HP 636376-001 laptop keyboard
The 18th century was a period of Ottoman Turk stagnation; as a result, many more Europeans found access to Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and painted, spurring a rise inphilhellenism and helping to arouse sympathy in Britain and France for Greek independence. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
Amongst those early travellers and archaeologists were James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettanti to survey the ruins of classical Athens. What they produced was the first measured drawings of the Parthenon published in 1787 in the second volume of Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
In 1801, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, the Earl of Elgin, obtained a firman (edict) from the Sultan to make casts and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis, to demolish recent buildings if this was necessary to view the antiquities, and to remove sculptures from them. HP Pavilion dv6-2019er laptop keyboard
Although the existence of the firman is doubtful, as the original document has not been rescued, he took this as permission to collect all the sculptures he could find. He employed local people to detach them from the building itself; HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca laptop keyboard
a few others he collected from the ground, and some smaller pieces he bought from local people. The detachment of the sculptures caused further irreparable damage to what was left of the building, as some of the frieze blocks were sawn in half to lessen their weight for shipment to England. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5245 laptop keyboard
When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible section of the minaret was demolished; only its base and spiral staircase up to the level of the architrave remain intact.[80] HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
Soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings on the Acropolis were destroyed. However the image of the small mosque within the Parthenon's cella has been preserved in Joly de Lotbinière's photograph, published in Lerebours's Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis.[81] HP G42-368TX laptop keyboard
The area became a historical precinct controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year, who travel up the path at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea, and up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
The dispute centres around the Parthenon Marbles removed by the Earl of Elgin, which are in the British Museum. A few sculptures from the Parthenon are also in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but over fifty percent are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens.[10][82] FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 laptop keyboard
A few can still be seen on the building itself. The Greek government has campaigned since 1983 for the British Museum to return the sculptures to Greece.[82] The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures,[83] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the Museum to do so (which would require legislation). Nevertheless, FUJITSU CP307045-01 laptop keyboard
talks between senior representatives from Greek and British cultural ministries, and their legal advisors took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, and there were hopes that the two sides may move a step closer to a resolution.[84] HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. After some delay a Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1983.[85] TOSHIBA Satellite L40-15V Laptop Keyboard
The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. An archaeological committee thoroughly documented every artifact remaining on the site, and architects assisted with computer models to determine their original locations. HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use. In some cases, SONY VAIO VGN NR310E/T Laptop Keyboard
prior re-construction was found to be incorrect. These were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began.[86] Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins that were completely coated in lead, HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated, and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble.[87] All new metalwork uses titanium, a strong, light, and corrosion resistant material. HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon will not be restored to a pre-1687 state, but the explosion damage will be mitigated as much as possible, both in the interest of restoring the structural integrity of the edifice (important in this earthquake-prone region) TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
and to restore the aesthetic integrity by filling in chipped sections of column drums and lintels, using precisely sculpted marble cemented in place. New Pentelic marble is being used from the original quarry. Ultimately, HP HDX18-1080EG Laptop Keyboard
almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the structure where they originally would have been, supported as needed by modern materials. While the repairs initially show as white against the weathered tan of original surfaces, they will become less prominent as they age.[citation needed] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Pronounced features of both Greek and Roman versions of the Doric order are the alternating triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs are decoratively grooved with three vertical grooves ("tri-glyph") SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
and represent the original wooden end-beams, which rest on the plain architrave that occupies the lower half of the entablature. Under each triglyph are peglike "stagons" or "guttae" (literally: drops) that appear as if they were hammered in from below to stabilize the post-and-beam (trabeated) construction. They also served to "organize" rainwater runoff from above. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
A triglyph is centered above every column, with another (or sometimes two) between columns, though the Greeks felt that the corner triglyph should form the corner of the entablature, creating an inharmonious mismatch with the supporting column. The spaces between the triglyphs are the "metopes". DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
They may be left plain, or they may be carved in low relief.
The architecture followed rules of harmony. Since the original design came from wooden temples and the triglyphs were real heads of wooden beams, every column had to bear a beam which lay across the centre of the column. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
Triglyphs were arranged regularly; the last triglyph was centred upon the last column (illustration, right: I.). This was regarded as the ideal solution which had to be reached.
Changing to stone cubes instead of wooden beams required full support of the architrave load at the last column. HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
At the first temples the final triglyph was moved (illustration, right: II.), still terminating the sequence, but leaving a gap disturbing the regular order. Even worse, the last triglyph was not centered with the corresponding column. That “archaic” manner was not regarded as a harmonious design. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
The resulting problem is called the doric corner conflict. Another approach was to apply a broader corner triglyph (III.) but was not really satisfying.
Because the metopes are somewhat flexible in their proportions, the modular space between columns (“intercolumniation”) Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
can be adjusted by the architect. Often the last two columns were set slightly closer together (corner contraction), to give a subtle visual strengthening to the corners. That is called the “classic” solution of the corner conflict (IV.). SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard
Triglyphs could be arranged in a harmonic manner again, and the corner was terminated with a triglyph. However, final triglyph and column were often not centered.
Early examples of the Doric order include the temples at Paestum in southern Italy, HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
a region called Magna Graecia, which was settled by Greek colonists and retained a strongly Hellenic culture.
The Temple of the Delians is a “peripteral” Doric order temple, the largest of three dedicated to Apollo on the island of Delos. ASUS X53 Laptop Keyboard
It was begun in 478 BC and never completely finished. During their period of independence from Athens, the Delians reassigned the temple to the island of Poros. It is “hexastyle”, with six columns across the pedimented end and thirteen along each long face. HP 540 Laptop Keyboard
All the columns are centered under a triglyph in the frieze, except for the corner columns. The plain, unfluted shafts on the columns stand directly on the platform (the stylobate), without bases. The recessed “necking” at the top of the shafts and the wide cushionlike echinus are slightly self-conscious archaicizing features, for Delos is Apollo's ancient birthplace. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
A classic statement of the Greek Doric order is the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, built about 447 BC. The contemporary Parthenon, the largest temple in classical Athens, is also in the Doric order, although the sculptural enrichment is more familiar in the Ionic order: Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
the Greeks were never as doctrinaire in the use of the Classical vocabulary as Renaissance theorists or neoclassical architects. The detail (illustration, left), part of the basic vocabulary of trained architects from the later 18th century onwards, shows how the width of the metopes was flexible: here they bear the famous bas-relief sculptures of the battle of Lapiths and Centaurs. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
In the Roman Doric version (illustration, left), the height of the entablature has been reduced. The endmost triglyph is centered over the column rather than occupying the corner of the architrave. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
The columns are slightly less robust in their proportions. Below their caps, an astragal molding encircles the column like a ring. Crown moldings soften transitions between frieze and cornice and emphasize the upper edge of the abacus, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
which is the upper part of the capital. Roman Doric columns also have moldings at their bases and stand on low square pads or are even raised on plinths. In the Roman Doric mode, columns are not invariably fluted. Since the Romans dropped the request of the triglyphDELL Latitude D820 Laptop Keyboard
covered corner, now both columns and triglyphs could be arranged in equidistant order again and well centered together. The architrave corner needed to be left “blank” (illustration, right, V.).
The Roman architect Vitruvius, following contemporary practice, outlined in his treatise the procedure for laying out constructions based on a module, which he took to be one half a column's diameter, taken at the base. An illustration of Andrea Palladio's Doric order, HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
as it was laid out, with modules identified, by Isaac Ware, in The Four Books of Palladio's Architecture (London, 1738) is illustrated at Vitruvian module.
When Greek Revival architecture was introduced at the beginning of the 19th century, the Greek Doric order had not previously been widely used. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
The first engraved illustrations of the Greek Doric order dated to the mid-18th century. Its appearance in the new phase of Classicism brought with it new connotations of high-minded primitive simplicity, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
seriousness of purpose, noble sobriety, and, in the United States, republican virtues. In a customs house, Greek Doric suggested incorruptibility; in a Protestant church a Greek Doric porch promised a return to an untainted early church; it was equally appropriate for a library, a bank or a trustworthy public utility (illustration, left).
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[1] This gives the Doric columns a shorter, thicker look than Ionic columns, which have 8:1 proportions. It is suggested that these proportions give the Doric columns a masculine appearance, HP Pavilion dv4-1242tx Laptop Keyboard
whereas the more slender Ionic columns appear represent a more feminine look. This sense of masculinity and femininity was often used to determine which type of column would be used for a particular structure. ASUS F80C Laptop Keyboard
Examples
The Greco-Persian Wars (also often called the Persian Wars) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and city-states of the Hellenic world that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC. The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began whenCyrus the Great conquered Ionia in 547 BC. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Struggling to rule the independent-minded cities of Ionia, the Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them. This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike. HP 537753-001 Laptop Keyboard
In 499 BC, the then-tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, embarked on an expedition to conquer the island of Naxos, with Persian support;[2] however, the expedition was a debacle and, pre-empting his dismissal, Aristagoras incited all of Hellenic Asia Minor into rebellion against the Persians. HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard
This was the beginning of the Ionian Revolt, which would last until 493 BC, progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict. Aristagoras secured military support from Athens and Eretria, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
and in 498 BC these forces helped to capture and burn the Persian regional capital of Sardis. The Persian king Darius the Great vowed to have revenge on Athens and Eretria for this act. The revolt continued, with the two sides effectively stalemated throughout 497–495 BC. In 494 BC, the Persians regrouped, and attacked the epicentre of the revolt in Miletus. HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca Laptop Keyboard
At the Battle of Lade, the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat, and the rebellion collapsed, with the final members being stamped out the following year.
Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts and from the interference of the mainland Greeks, HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
Darius embarked on a scheme to conquer Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria for burning Sardis. The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC, with the Persian general Mardonius conquering Thrace and Macedon before several mishaps forced an early end to the campaign. In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece, TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-S5151 Laptop Keyboard
this time across the Aegean Sea, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. This expedition subjugated the Cyclades, before besieging, capturing and razing Eretria. However, while en route to attack Athens, the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon, ending Persian efforts for the time being. DELL Inspiron 1520 Laptop Keyboard
Darius then began to plan to complete the conquest of Greece, but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son Xerxes I. In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led the second Persian invasion of Greece with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled. Victory over the 'Allied' TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Greek states (led by Sparta and Athens) at the Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to torch Athens and overrun most of Greece. However, while seeking to destroy the combined Greek fleet, the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the Battle of Salamis. HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
The following year, the confederated Greeks went on the offensive, defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea, and ending the invasion of Greece.
The allied Greeks followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale, before expelling Persian garrisons from Sestos (479 BC) SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
and Byzantium (478 BC). The actions of the generalPausanias at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans, and the anti-Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
as the so-called Delian League. The Delian League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades, beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe. At the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 BC, HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia. However, the League's involvement in an Egyptian revolt (from 460–454 BC) resulted in a disastrous defeat, and further campaigning was suspended. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
A fleet was sent to Cyprus in 451 BC, but achieved little, and when it withdrew the Greco-Persian Wars drew to a quiet end. Some historical sources suggest the end of hostilities was marked by a peace treaty between Athens and Persia, the so-called Peace of Callias. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Almost all the primary sources for the Greco-Persian Wars are Greek; there are no surviving historical accounts from the Persian side. By some distance, the main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History",[3] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then part of the Persian empire). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—Historia; English—(The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been recent history.[4] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
Herodotus's approach was novel and, at least in Western society, he invented 'history' as a discipline.[4] As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."[4]
Some later ancient historians, starting with Thucydides, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
criticised Herodotus.[5][6] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos) and felt Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.[6] Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
(barbarian-lover) for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.[7] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds that have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.[8] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.[8] Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.[9] ACER Aspire 5720 Laptop Keyboard
The military history of Greece between the end of the second Persian invasion of Greece and the Peloponnesian War (479–431 BC) is not well supported by surviving ancient sources. This period, sometimes referred to as the pentekontaetia by ancient scholars, was a period of relative peace and prosperity within Greece.[10][11] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
The richest source for the period, and also the most contemporaneous, is Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, which is generally considered by modern historians to be a reliable primary account.[12][13][14] Thucydides only mentions this period in a digression on the growth of Athenian power in the run up to the Peloponnesian War, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and the account is brief, probably selective and lacks any dates.[15][16] Nevertheless, Thucydides's account can be, and is, used by historians to draw up a skeleton chronology for the period, on to which details from archaeological records and other writers can be superimposed.[15] DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard
More detail for the whole period is provided by Plutarch, in his biographies of Themistocles, Aristides and especially Cimon. Plutarch was writing some 600 years after the events in question, and is therefore a secondary source, SAMSUNG BA59-02709A Laptop Keyboard
but he often names his sources, which allows some degree of verification of his statements.[17] In his biographies, he draws directly from many ancient histories that have not survived, and thus often preserves details of the period that are omitted in Herodotus and Thucydides's accounts. ACER Aspire 9120 laptop keyboard
The final major existing source for the period is the universal history (Bibliotheca historica) of the 1st century BC Sicilian, Diodorus Siculus. Much of Diodorus's writing about this period is drawn from the much earlier Greek historian Ephorus, Compaq Presario CQ62-a50SH laptop keyboard
who also wrote a universal history.[18] Diodorus is also a secondary source and often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else.[19] SONY VAIO VGN-FS395VP laptop keyboard
Further scattered details can be found in Pausanias's Description of Greece, while the Byzantine Suda dictionary of the 10th century AD preserves some anecdotes found nowhere else. Minor sources for the period include the works of Pompeius Trogus(epitomized by Justinus), Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
Cornelius Nepos and Ctesias of Cnidus (epitomized by Photius), which are not in their original textual form. These works are not considered reliable (especially Ctesias), and are not particularly useful for reconstructing the history of this period.[20][21] HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
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The first campaign, in 492 BC, was led by Darius's son-in-law Mardonius,[70] who re-subjugated Thrace, which had nominally been part of the Persian empire since 513 BC.[71] Mardonius was also able to force Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia; it had previously been allied but independent.[72] However, Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard
further progress in this campaign was prevented when Mardonius's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Mount Athos. Mardonius himself was then injured in a raid on his camp by a Thracian tribe, and after this he returned with the rest of the expedition to Asia.[72][73] HP Mini 110-3000 CTO laptop keyboard
The following year, having given clear warning of his plans, Darius sent ambassadors to all the cities of Greece, demanding their submission.[74] He received it from almost all of them, except Athens and Sparta, HP Mini 110-3103sl laptop keyboard
both of whom instead executed the ambassadors.[74] With Athens still defiant, and Sparta now also effectively at war with him, Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year.[75] ASUS V020662BS1 laptop keyboard
In 490 BC, Datis and Artaphernes (son of the satrap Artaphernes) were given command of an amphibious invasion force, and set sail from Cilicia.[75] The Persian force sailed from Cilicia first to the island of Rhodes, where a Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos, but was unsuccessful.[76] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The fleet sailed next to Naxos, to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier.[77] Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains; those that the Persians caught were enslaved.[78] HP Mini 210-1050EI laptop keyboard
The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians.[78] The fleet then proceeded to island-hop across the rest of the Aegean on its way to Eretria, taking hostages and troops from each island.[77] HP Pavilion dv6-2192el laptop keyboard
The task force sailed on to Euboea, and to the first major target, Eretria.[79] The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians from landing or advancing and thus allowed themselves to be besieged.[80] For six days, the Persians attacked the walls, with losses on both sides;[80] SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard
however, on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians.[80] The city was razed, and temples and shrines were looted and burned. Furthermore, according to Darius's commands, the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople.[80] COMPAQ Presario CQ40 laptop keyboard
Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse racesand chariot races.[109] During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.[109] HP Pavilion dv6-3103er laptop keyboard
An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign.[113] In addition, he also revived the practice of publicbanquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded theCapitoline Games, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.[114] Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole Empire and attributed the prizes. FUJITSU Lifebook E8310 Laptop Keyboard
Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights.[115] Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams.
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor, SONY VAIO VGN-FW190NDH Laptop Keyboard
his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, HP Pavilion DV7-2122tx Laptop Keyboard
much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum.
Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquilius, Cassius Dio, Pliny the Elder, ACER Aspire 4920 Laptop Keyboard
present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.[116]
Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, ASUS U3S Laptop Keyboard
his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century AD, and the culmination of the 'Pax Romana'. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard
His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.[117] GATEWAY V030946FS1 US laptop keyboard
Religious demography among Indigenous Australians is not conclusive because the methodology of the census is not always well-suited to obtaining accurate information on Aboriginal people.[87] In the 2006 census, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
73% of the Indigenous population reported an affiliation with a Christian denomination, 24% reported no religious affiliation and 1% reported affiliation with an Australian Aboriginal traditional religion.[88] A small but growing minority of Aborigines are followers of Islam.[89]
Aboriginal people traditionally adhered to animist spiritual frameworks. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
Within Aboriginal belief systems, a formative epoch known as 'the Dreamtime' stretches back into the distant past when the creator ancestors known as the First Peoples travelled across the land, creating and naming as they went.[90] DELL NSK-DE101 laptop keyboard
Indigenous Australia's oral tradition and religious values are based upon reverence for the land and a belief in this Dreamtime.
The Dreaming is at once both the ancient time of creation and the present-day reality of Dreaming. SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH laptop keyboard
There were a great many different groups, each with its own individual culture, belief structure, and language. These cultures overlapped to a greater or lesser extent, and evolved over time. Major ancestral spirits include the Rainbow Serpent, Baiame, Dirawong and Bunjil. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
The various Indigenous Australian communities developed unique musical instruments and folk styles. The didgeridoo, which is widely thought to be a stereotypical instrument of Aboriginal people, DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
was traditionally played by people of only the easternKimberley region and Arnhem Land (such as the Yolngu), and then by only the men.[91] Clapping sticks are probably the more ubiquitous musical instrument, especially because they help maintain rhythm for songs. GATEWAY M-6813M Laptop Keyboard
Contemporary Australian aboriginal music is predominantly of the country music genre. Most Indigenous radio stations – particularly in metropolitan areas – serve a double purpose as the local country-music station. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
More recently, Indigenous Australian musicians have branched into rock and roll, hip hop and reggae. One of the most well known modern bands is Yothu Yindi playing in a style which has been called Aboriginal rock. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
[citation needed] Another popular band was the Warumpi Bandformed by Neil Murray and charismatic frontman, George Burarrwanga. In 1986, Midnight Oil and the Warumpi Band embarked on the "Blackfella/Whitefella Tour".Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 Laptop Keyboard
Amongst young Australian Aboriginal peoples, African-American and Aboriginal hip hop music and clothing is popular.[92]Aboriginal boxing champion and former rugby league player Anthony Mundine identified US rapper Tupac Shakur as a personal inspiration, after Mundine's release of his 2007 single, Platinum Ryder.[93] SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Listen to an excerpt of Indigenous tribal music from the Yirrkala district in far north-east Arnhem Land, recorded by AP Elkin on australianscreen online.
At the Sydney 2000 Olympics, Christine Anu sang the song "My Island Home" at the Closing Ceremony.[94] HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years.[95] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the UNESCOlisted sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney.[96][97][98] SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
The Sydney rock engravings are approximately 5000 to 200 years old. Murujuga in Western Australia has the Friends of Australian Rock Art have advocated its preservation, and the numerous engravings there were heritage listed in 2007.[99][100] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
In terms of age and abundance, cave art in Australia is comparable to that of Lascaux andAltamira in Europe,[101] and Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world.[102] There are three major regional styles: Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
the geometric style found in Central Australia, Tasmania, the Kimberley and Victoria known for its concentric circles, arcs and dots; the simple figurative style found in Queensland and the complex figurative style found in Arnhem Land and the Kimberley which includes X-Ray art, Gwian Gwian (Bradshaw) and Wunjina. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
These designs generally carry significance linked to the spirituality of the Dreamtime.[103] Paintings were usually created in earthy colours, from paint made from ochre. Such ochres were also used to paint their bodies for ceremonial purposes. HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
Modern Aboriginal artists continue the tradition, using modern materials in their artworks. Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times, including the watercolour paintings of the Hermannsburg School, and the acrylic Papunya Tula"dot art" IBM ThinkPad T40p 2668 Laptop Keyboard
movement. William Barak (c.1824–1903) was one of the last traditionally educated of the Wurundjeri-willam, people who come from the district now incorporating the city of Melbourne. He remains notable for his artworks which recorded traditional Aboriginal ways for the education of Westerners SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
(which remain on permanent exhibition at the Ian Potter Centre of the National Gallery of Victoria and at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery. Margaret Preston (1875–1963) was among the early non-indigenous painters to incorporate Aboriginal influences in her works. HP Pavilion dv6-2131el laptop keyboard
Albert Namatjira (1902–1959) is one of the most famous Australian artists and an Arrernte man. His landscapes inspired the Hermannsburg School of art. The works of Elizabeth Durack are notable for their fusion of Western and indigenous influences. Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
Since the 1970s, indigenous artists have employed the use of acrylic paints – with styles such as that of the Western Desert Art Movement becoming globally renowned 20th-century art movements. HP Mini 210-2103tu laptop keyboard
The National Gallery of Australia exhibits a great many indigenous art works, including those of the Torres Strait Islands who are known for their traditional sculpture and headgear.[104]
By 1788, HP 640208-001 Laptop Keyboard
Indigenous Australians had not developed a system of writing, so the first literary accounts of Aborigines come from the journals of early European explorers, which contain descriptions of first contact, both violent and friendly. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Early accounts by Dutch explorers and the English buccaneer William Dampier wrote of the "natives of New Holland" as being "barbarous savages", but by the time of Captain James Cook and First Fleet marine Watkin Tench (the era of Jean-Jacques Rousseau), SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
accounts of Aborigines were more sympathetic and romantic: "these people may truly be said to be in the pure state of nature, and may appear to some to be the most wretched upon the earth; but in reality they are far happier than ... we Europeans", wrote Cook in his journal on 23 August 1770. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Letters written by early Aboriginal leaders like Bennelong and Sir Douglas Nicholls are retained as treasures of Australian literature, as is the historic Yirrkala bark petitions of 1963 which is the first traditional Aboriginal document recognised by the Australian Parliament.[105] SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
David Unaipon (1872–1967) is credited as providing the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal: Legendary Tales of the Aborigines; he is known as the first Aboriginal author. Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1995) Lenovo 45N2036 Laptop Keyboard
was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist credited with publishing the first Aboriginal book of verse: HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
We Are Going(1964).[106] Sally Morgan's novel My Place was considered a breakthrough memoir in terms of bringing indigenous stories to wider notice. Leading Aboriginal activists Marcia Langton (First Australians, 2008) and Noel Pearson("Up From the Mission", 2009) are active contemporary contributors to Australian literature. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon (Greek: Παρθενών) is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the maiden goddessAthena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron deity. Its construction began in 447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It was completed in 438 BC, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
although decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the culmination of the development of the Doric order. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy, western civilization[3] and one of the world' s ACER NSK-H3V1D Laptop Keyboard
greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.[4] TOSHIBA KFRSBA114A Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon itself replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon, that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. The temple is archaeoastronomically aligned to the Hyades.[5] HP Pavilion DV7-3162nr Laptop Keyboard
Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as a treasury. For a time, it also served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the 5th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
After the Ottoman conquest, SONY VAIO VGN-CR150F Laptop Keyboard
it was turned into a mosque in the early 1460s. On 26 September 1687, an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment. The resulting explosion severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed some of the surviving sculptures, with the permission of the Ottoman Empire. These sculptures, now known as the Elgin Marbles or the Parthenon Marbles, were sold in 1816 to theBritish Museum in London, SAMSUNG Q330-JA02 Laptop Keyboard
where they are now displayed. Since 1983 (on the initiative of Culture Minister Melina Mercouri), the Greek government has been committed to the return of the sculptures to Greece.[6]
The origin of the Parthenon's name is from the Greek word "παρθενών" (parthenon), HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
which referred to the "unmarried women's apartments" in a house and in the Parthenon's case seems to have been used at first only for a particular room of the temple;[7] it is debated which room this is and how the room acquired its name. The Liddell-Scott-Jones Greek-English Lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
Jamauri D. Green holds that the parthenon was the room in which the peplos presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Festival was woven by the arrephoroi, a group of four young girls chosen to serve Athena each year.[8] TOSHIBA Qosmio G40/97D Laptop Keyboard
Christopher Pelling asserts that Athena Parthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that of Athena Polias.[9] According to this theory, the name of Parthenon means the "HP Mini 110-3018cl Laptop Keyboard
temple of the virgin goddess" and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos that was associated with the temple.[10] The epithet parthénos (Greek: παρθένος), whose origin is also unclear,[11] meant "maiden, girl", but also "virgin, unmarried woman"[12] and was especially used for Artemis, the goddess of wild animals, DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard
the hunt, and vegetation, and for Athena, the goddess of strategy and tactics, handicraft, and practical reason.[13] It has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the maidens (parthenoi), whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city.[14] SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH Laptop Keyboard
The first instance in which Parthenon definitely refers to the entire building is found in the 4th-century BC orator Demosthenes. In 5th-century building accounts, the structure is simply called ho naos ("the temple"). The architects Mnesikles and Callicrates are said to have called the building Hekatompodos("the hundred footer") HP AEUT3U00140 Laptop Keyboard
in their lost treatise on Athenian architecture,[15] and, in the 4th century and later, the building was referred to as the Hekatompedosor the Hekatompedon as well as the Parthenon; the 1st-century AD writer Plutarch referred to the building as the Hekatompedon Parthenon.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-AW11S/B laptop keyboard
Because the Parthenon was dedicated to Greek goddess Athena, it has sometimes been referred to as the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, particularly during the 19th century.[17] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Function
Although the Parthenon is architecturally a temple and is usually called so, it is not really one in the conventional sense of the word.[18] A small shrine has been excavated within the building, on the site of an older sanctuary probably dedicated to Athena as a way to get closer to the goddess,[18] but the Parthenon never hosted the cult of Athena Polias, HP G62-b55SM laptop keyboard
patron of Athens: the cult image, which was bathed in the sea and to which was presented the peplos, was an olivewood xoanon, located at an older altar on the northern side of the Acropolis.[19] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
The colossal statue of Athena by Phidias was not related to any cult[20] and never inspired any recorded religious fervour.[19] It did not seem to have any priestess, altar nor cult name.[21] According to Thucydides, HP G62-355CA laptop keyboard
Pericles once referred to the statue as a gold reserve, stressing that it "contained forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable".[22] The Athenian statesman thus implies that the metal, obtained from contemporary coinage,[23] HP Mini 110-3018cl laptop keyboard
could be used again without any impiety.[21] The Parthenon should then be viewed as a grand setting for the votive statue of Phidias rather than a cult site.[24] It is said in many writings of the Greeks that there were many treasures stored inside, such as Persian swords, and small statue figures made of precious metals. HP Pavilion dv6-2106ea laptop keyboard
The first endeavor to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon (c. 490–488 BC) upon a muscular limestone foundation that extended and leveled the southern part of the Acropolis summit. This building replaced a hekatompedon (meaning "hundred-footer")HP Mini 210-2037tu laptop keyboard
and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias ("of the city"). The Older or Pre-Parthenon, as it is frequently referred to, was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC and razed the Acropolis.[25][26] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
The existence of the proto-Parthenon and its destruction were known from Herodotus,[27] and the drums of its columns were plainly visible built into the curtain wall north of the Erechtheum. Further material evidence of this structure was revealed with the excavations of Panagiotis Kavvadias of 1885–90. HP Mini 110-3108sa Laptop Keyboard
The findings of this dig allowed Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to assert that there existed a distinct substructure to the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I by Dörpfeld, IBM Thinkpad R61i Laptop Keyboard
not immediately below the present edifice as had been previously assumed.[28] Dörpfeld's observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consisted of two steps of Poros limestone, the same as the foundations, and a top step of Karrha limestone that was covered by the lowest step of the Periclean Parthenon. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
This platform was smaller and slightly to the north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a wholly different building, Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
now wholly covered over. This picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report on the 1885–90 excavations, indicating that the substructure was contemporary with the Kimonian walls, and implying a later date for the first temple.[29] HP HDX18-1101EG laptop keyboard
If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, it invites the question of why the site was left a ruin for thirty-three years. One argument involves the oath sworn by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC[30] COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
declaring that the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians would not be rebuilt, an oath from which the Athenians were only absolved with the Peace of Callias in 450.[31] The mundane fact of the cost of reconstructing Athens after the Persian sack is at least as likely a cause. However, COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
the excavations of Bert Hodge Hill led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon, begun in the period of Kimonafter 468 BC.[32] Hill claimed that the Karrha limestone step Dörpfeld thought was the highest of Parthenon I was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate dimensions Hill calculated at 23.51 by 66.888 metres (77.13 × 219.45 ft). HP COMPAQ NX7300 laptop keyboard
One difficulty in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information. HP COMPAQ NX7400 laptop keyboard
An attempt to make sense of the potsherds found on the acropolis came with the two-volume study by Graef and Langlotz published 1925–33.[33] ACER K052030A1 laptop keyboard
This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attempt to supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier 495 BC, contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld.[34] TOSHIBA Satellite 1410-S173 laptop keyboard
Further Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto-Parthenons, and that the only pre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1935.[35] COMPAQ Presario CQ61-100 laptop keyboard
In the mid-5th century BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the Delian League and Athens was the greatest cultural centre of its time, Periclesinitiated an ambitious building project that lasted the entire second half of the century. HP Pavilion dv4-1199ea laptop keyboard
The most important buildings visible on the Acropolis today—the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the temple of Athena Nike—were erected during this period. The Parthenon was built under the general supervision of the artist Phidias, TOSHIBA Satellite C650-152 laptop keyboard
who also had charge of the sculptural decoration. The architects, Ictinos and Callicrates, began in 447 BC, and the building was substantially completed by 432, but work on the decorations continued until at least 431. SAMSUNG Q330 Series laptop keyboard
Some of the financial accounts for the Parthenon survive and show that the largest single expense was transporting the stone from Mount Pentelicus, about 16 kilometres from Athens, to the Acropolis. The funds were partly drawn from the treasury of the Delian League, which was moved from the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delos to the Acropolis in 454 BC. TOSHIBA Satellite l20-204 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon is a peripteral octostyle Doric temple with Ionic architectural features. It stands on a platform or stylobateof three steps. In common with other Greek temples, it is of post and lintel construction and is surrounded by columns ("peripteral") carrying an entablature. TOSHIBA Satellite A300-ST3511 laptop keyboard
There are eight columns at either end ("octostyle") and seventeen on the sides. There is a double row of columns at either end. The colonnade surrounds an inner masonry structure, the cella which is divided into two compartments. At either end of the building the gable is finished with a triangular pediment originally filled with sculpture. ACER K052030A1 laptop keyboard
The columns are of the Doric Order, with simple capitals, fluted shafts and no bases. Above the architrave of the entablature is a frieze of carved pictorial panels (metopes), separated by formal architectural triglyphs, typical of the Doric Order. TOSHIBA Satellite L750D-BT5N22 laptop keyboard
Around the cella and across the lintels of the inner columns runs a continuous sculptured frieze in low relief. This element of the architecture is Ionic in style, rather than Doric.[36]
Measured at the stylobate, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon are 69.5 metres by 30.9 metres (228.0 x 101.4 ft). Thecella was 29.8 metres long by 19.2 metres wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft), HP 9J.N8682.501 Laptop Keyboard
with internal colonnades in two tiers, structurally necessary to support the roof. On the exterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in diameter and are 10.4 metres (34.1 ft) high. The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter. Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon had 46 outer pillars and 23 inner pillars in total. The stylobate has an upward curvature towards its centre of 60 millimetres (2.36 in) on the east and west ends, and of 110 millimetres (4.33 in) on the sides. The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as imbrices and tegulae. DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon, is regarded as the finest example of Greek architecture. The temple, wrote John Julius Cooper, "enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. Even in antiquity, its architectural refinements were legendary, COMPAQ NSK-H5401 Laptop Keyboard
especially the subtle correspondence between the curvature of the stylobate, the taper of the naos walls and theentasis of the columns."[37] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Entasis refers to the slight diminution in diameter of the columns as they rise, though the observable effect on the Parthenon is considerably more subtle than on earlier temples. The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand. HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard
As in many other classical Greek temples,[38] it has a slight parabolic upward curvature intended to shed rainwater and reinforce the building against earthquakes. The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards, but they actually lean slightly inwards so that if they carried on, HP G61-100SA Laptop Keyboard
they would meet almost exactly a mile above the centre of the Parthenon; since they are all the same height, the curvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the architrave and roof above: "DELL Inspiron N4110 Laptop Keyboard
All follow the rule of being built to delicate curves," Gorham Stevens observed when pointing out that, in addition, the west front was built at a slightly higher level than that of the east front.[39] It is not universally agreed what the intended effect of these "optical refinements" was; they may serve as a sort of "reverse optical illusion".[40] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
As the Greeks may have been aware, two parallel lines appear to bow, or curve outward, when intersected by converging lines. In this case, the ceiling and floor of the temple may seem to bow in the presence of the surrounding angles of the building. Striving for perfection, ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
the designers may have added these curves, compensating for the illusion by creating their own curves, thus negating this effect and allowing the temple to be seen as they intended. It is also suggested that it was to enliven what might have appeared an inert mass in the case of a building without curves, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
but the comparison ought to be with the Parthenon's more obviously curved predecessors than with a notional rectilinear temple.
Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, conclude that many of its proportions approximate the golden ratio. The Parthenon's façade as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere can be circumscribed by golden rectangles.[41] HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
This view that the golden ratio was employed in the design has been disputed in more recent studies.[42]
The cella of the Parthenon housed the chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos sculpted by Phidias and dedicated in 439 or 438 BC. DELL Inspiron N4110 Laptop Keyboard
The decorative stonework was originally highly coloured.[43] The temple was dedicated to Athena at that time, though construction continued until almost the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By the year 438, TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard
the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above the exterior colonnade, and of the Ionic frieze around the upper portion of the walls of the cella, had been completed. The richness of the Parthenon's frieze and metope decoration is in agreement with the function of the temple as a treasury. In the opisthodomus (the back room of the cella) TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard
were stored the monetary contributions of the Delian League, of which Athens was the leading member.
The frieze of the Parthenon's entablature contained ninety-two metopes. They were carved in high relief, a practice employed until then only in treasuries (buildings used to keep votive gifts to the gods).[citation needed] SONY VAIO VGN-CR410E laptop keyboard
According to the building records, the metope sculptures date to the years 446–440 BC. Their design is attributed to the sculptor Kalamis. The metopes of the east side of the Parthenon, above the main entrance, depict the Gigantomachy (mythical battles between the Olympian gods and the Giants). SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
The metopes of the west end show Amazonomachy (mythical battle of the Athenians against the Amazons). The metopes of the south side show the Thessalian Centauromachy (battle of the Lapiths aided by Theseus against the half-man, half-horse Centaurs). Metopes 13–21 are missing, but drawings from 1674 attributed to Jaques Carrey indicate a series of humans; DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
these have been variously interpreted as scenes from the Lapith wedding, scenes from the early history of Athens and various myths.[44] On the north side of the Parthenon, the metopes are poorly preserved, but the subject seems to be the sack of Troy. HP Pavilion DV7t-3300 CTO laptop keyboard
The metopes present examples of the Severe Style in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of the corporal movements to the contours and not to the muscles, and in the presence of pronounced veins in the figures of theCentauromachy. Several of the metopes still remain on the building, HP G56-130SA laptop keyboard
but, with the exception of those on the northern side, they are severely damaged. Some of them are located at the Acropolis Museum, others are in the British Museum, and one is at the Louvre museum. HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five metopes of the Parthenon in the south wall of the Acropolis, which had been extended when the Acropolis was used as a fortress. According to Eleftherotypia daily, Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard
the archaeologists claimed the metopes had been placed there in the 18th century, when the Acropolis wall was being repaired. The experts discovered the metopes, while processing 2250 photos with modern photographic methods, HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
as the white Pentelic marble they are made of differed from the other stone of the wall. It was previously presumed that the missing metopes were destroyed during the Morosini explosion of the Parthenon, in 1687.[45] SONY VAIO VGN-FS812F laptop keyboard
The most characteristic feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic frieze running around the exterior walls of the cella, which is the inside structure of the Parthenon. The bas-relief frieze was carved in situ; it is dated in 442 BC-438 BC. IBM ThinkPad T40-2374 laptop keyboard
One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the Panathenaic procession from the Dipylon Gate in theKerameikos to the Acropolis. In this procession held every year, with a special procession taking place every four years, Athenians and foreigners were participating to honour the goddess Athena, offering sacrifices and a new peplos (dress woven by selected noble Athenian girls called ergastines). HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
Joan Breton Connelly has recently argued for another interpretation of the frieze, in which she attempts to prove that the iconography of the frieze is based on Greek mythology. This interpretation postulates that the scenes depict the sacrifice ofPandora, youngest daughter of Erechtheus, to Athena. HP Pavilion DV7-3060us laptop keyboard
This human sacrifice was demanded by Athena to save the city fromEumolpus, king of Eleusis, who had gathered an army to attack Athens.[46] DELL Inspiron N4110 laptop keyboard
The east pediment narrates the birth of Athena from the head of her father, Zeus. According to Greek mythology, Zeus gave birth to Athena after a terrible headache prompted him to summon Hephaestus' (the god of fire and the forge) assistance. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
To alleviate the pain, he ordered Hephaestus to strike him with his forging hammer, and when he did, Zeus's head split open and out popped the goddess Athena in full armour. The sculptural arrangement depicts the moment of Athena's birth. HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
Unfortunately, the centrepieces of the pediment were destroyed even before Jacques Carrey created otherwise useful documentary drawings in 1674, so all reconstructions are subject to conjecture and speculation. The main Olympian gods must have stood around Zeus and Athena watching the wondrous event, SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
with Hephaestus and Hera probably near them. The Carrey drawings are instrumental in reconstructing the sculptural arrangement beyond the center figures to the north and south.[47] DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
The west pediment faced the Propylaia and depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon during their competition for the honor of becoming the city's patron. Athena and Poseidon appear at the center of the composition, FUJITSU Siemens M1010 laptop keyboard
diverging from one another in strong diagonal forms, with the goddess holding the olive tree and the god of the sea raising his trident to strike the earth. At their flanks, they are framed by two active groups of horses pulling chariots, while a crowd of legendary personalities from Athenian mythology fills the space out to the acute corners of the pediment. ACER TravelMate 3012 laptop keyboard
The work on the pediments lasted from 438 to 432 BC, and the sculptures of the Parthenon pediments are some of the finest examples of classical Greek art. The figures are sculpted in natural movement with bodies full of vital energy that bursts through their flesh, as the flesh in turn bursts through their thin clothing. COMPAQ Presario R3000 laptop keyboard
The thin chitons reveal the body underneath as the focus of the composition. The distinction between gods and humans is blurred in the conceptual interplay between the idealism and naturalism bestowed on the stone by the sculptors.[48] HP G61-420SI laptop keyboard
The pediments no longer exist.
A major fire broke out in the Parthenon shortly after the middle of the third century AD[51][52] which destroyed the Parthenon's roof and much of the sanctuary's interior.[53] Repairs were made in the fourth century AD, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
possibly during the reign of Julian the Apostate.[54] A new wooden roof overlaid with clay tiles was installed to cover the sanctuary. It sloped at a greater incline than the original roof and left the building's wings exposed.[53] TOSHIBA Satellite L775-S7243 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon survived as a temple dedicated to Athena for close to a thousand years until Theodosius II decreed in 435 AD that all pagan temples in theByzantine Empire be closed.[55] At some point in the fifth century, SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard
Athena's great cult image was looted by one of the emperors and taken to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the siege of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 AD.[56] TOSHIBA Satellite A200 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church in the final decade of the sixth century AD[57] to become the Church of the Parthenos Maria (Virgin Mary), or the Church of the Theotokos (Mother of God). The orientation of the building was changed to face towards the east; HP Pavilion dv6-2123el laptop keyboard
the main entrance was placed at the building's western end and the Christian altar and iconostasis were situated towards the building's eastern side adjacent to an apse built where the temple'spronaos was formerly located.[58][59][60] DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
A large central portal with surrounding side-doors was made in the wall dividing the cella, which became the church'snave, from the rear chamber, the church's narthex.[58] The spaces between the columns of the opisthodomus and the peristyle were walled up though a number of doorways still permitted access.[58] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E125 laptop keyboard
Icons were painted on the walls and many Christian inscriptions were carved into the Parthenon's columns.[54] These renovations inevitably led to the removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures. Those depicting gods were either possibly re-interpreted according to a Christian theme, or removed and destroyed.[citation needed] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage destination in the Eastern Roman Empire after Constantinople, Ephesos and Thessalonica.[61]In 1018, the emperor Basil II went on a pilgrimage to Athens directly after his final victory over the Bulgarians for the sole purpose of worshipping at the Parthenon.[61] ASUS X85S laptop keyboard
In medieval Greek accounts it is called the Temple of Theotokos Atheniotissa and often indirectly referred to, as famous without explaining exactly which temple they were referring to, thus establishing that it was indeed well known.[61] SONY VAIO VGN-CS215J/W laptop keyboard
At the time of the Latin occupation, it became for about 250 years a Roman Catholic church of Our Lady. During this period a tower, used either as a watchtower or bell tower, containing a spiral staircase was constructed at the southwest corner of the cella and vaulted tombs were built beneath the Parthenon's floor.[62] HP Pavilion dv6-2110ei laptop keyboard
In 1456, Ottoman Turkish forces invaded Athens and laid siege to a Florentine army defending the Acropolis until June 1458, when it surrendered to the Turks.[63] The Turks may have briefly restored the Parthenon to the Greek Orthodox Christians for continued use as a church.[64] HP Mini 1140NR laptop keyboard
Some time before the close of the fifteenth century the Parthenon became a mosque.[65][66] The precise circumstances under which the Turks appropriated it for use as a mosque are unclear; one account states that Mehmed II ordered its conversion as punishment for an Athenian plot against Ottoman rule.[67] SONY VAIO VGN-N27GH/B laptop keyboard
The apse became a mihrab,[68] the tower previously constructed during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon was extended upwards to become a minaret,[69] aminbar was installed,[58] the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover icons of Christian saints along with other Christian imagery.[70] HP Pavilion dv5-1005tx laptop keyboard
Despite the alterations accompanying the Parthenon's conversion into a church and subsequently a mosque, its structure had remained basically intact.[71] In 1667 the Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi expressed marvel at the Parthenon's sculptures and figuratively described the building as "like some impregnable fortress not made by human agency."[72] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-209TU laptop keyboard
He composed a poetic supplication that it, as "a work less of human hands than of Heaven itself, should remain standing for all time."[73] The French artist Jacques Carrey in 1674 visited the Acropolis and sketched the Parthenon's sculptural decorations.[74] TOSHIBA Satellite a10-501 laptop keyboard
Early in 1687, an engineer named Plantier sketched the Parthenon for the Frenchman Graviers d’Ortières.[53] These depictions, particularly those made by Carrey, provide important, and sometimes the only, evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its various sculptures prior to the devastation it suffered in late 1687 and the subsequent looting of its art objects.[74] HP 576835-001 laptop keyboard
In 1687, the Parthenon was extensively damaged in the greatest catastrophe to befall it in its long history.[54] TheVenetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini to attack Athens and capture the Acropolis. ASUS F81 laptop keyboard
The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a gunpowder magazine – despite having been forewarned of the dangers of this use by the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea – and as a shelter for members of the local Turkish community.[75] HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
On 26 September a Venetian mortar round, fired from the Hill of Philopappus, blew up the magazine, and the building was partly destroyed.[76] The explosion blew out the building's central portion and caused the cella's walls to crumble into rubble.[71] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Greek architect and archaeologist Kornilia Chatziaslani writes that "...three of the sanctuary’s four walls nearly collapsed and three-fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell. Nothing of the roof apparently remained in place. TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
Six columns from the south side fell, eight from the north, as well as whatever remained from eastern porch, except for one column. The columns brought down with them the enormous marble architraves, triglyphs and metopes."[53] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
About three hundred people were killed in the explosion, which showered marble fragments over nearby Turkish defenders[75] and caused large fires that burned until the following day and consumed many homes.[53] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-205EF laptop keyboard
Accounts written at the time conflict over whether this destruction was deliberate or accidental; one such account, written by the German officer Sobievolski, states that a Turkish deserter revealed to Morosini the use to which the Turks had put the Parthenon expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historic importance. ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
Morosini was said to have responded by directing his artillery to aim at the Parthenon.[53][75] Subsequently Morosini sought to loot sculptures from the ruin and caused further damage in the process. Sculptures of Poseidon and Athena's horses fell to the ground and smashed as his soldiers tried to detach them from the building's west pediment.[59][77] SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Laptop Keyboard
The following year, the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid a confrontation with a large force the Turks had assembled at Chalcis; at that time, the Venetians had considered blowing up what remained of the Parthenon along with the rest of the Acropolis to deny its further use as a fortification to the Turks, but that idea was not pursued.[75] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
After the Turks had recaptured the Acropolis they used some of the rubble produced by this explosion to erect a smaller mosque within the shell of the ruined Parthenon.[78] For the next century and a half, portions of the remaining structure were looted for building material and any remaining objects of value.[79] HP 636376-001 laptop keyboard
The 18th century was a period of Ottoman Turk stagnation; as a result, many more Europeans found access to Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and painted, spurring a rise inphilhellenism and helping to arouse sympathy in Britain and France for Greek independence. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
Amongst those early travellers and archaeologists were James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettanti to survey the ruins of classical Athens. What they produced was the first measured drawings of the Parthenon published in 1787 in the second volume of Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated. SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
In 1801, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, the Earl of Elgin, obtained a firman (edict) from the Sultan to make casts and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis, to demolish recent buildings if this was necessary to view the antiquities, and to remove sculptures from them. HP Pavilion dv6-2019er laptop keyboard
Although the existence of the firman is doubtful, as the original document has not been rescued, he took this as permission to collect all the sculptures he could find. He employed local people to detach them from the building itself; HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca laptop keyboard
a few others he collected from the ground, and some smaller pieces he bought from local people. The detachment of the sculptures caused further irreparable damage to what was left of the building, as some of the frieze blocks were sawn in half to lessen their weight for shipment to England. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5245 laptop keyboard
When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible section of the minaret was demolished; only its base and spiral staircase up to the level of the architrave remain intact.[80] HP Pavilion dv6-3050tx laptop keyboard
Soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings on the Acropolis were destroyed. However the image of the small mosque within the Parthenon's cella has been preserved in Joly de Lotbinière's photograph, published in Lerebours's Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis.[81] HP G42-368TX laptop keyboard
The area became a historical precinct controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year, who travel up the path at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea, and up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
The dispute centres around the Parthenon Marbles removed by the Earl of Elgin, which are in the British Museum. A few sculptures from the Parthenon are also in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but over fifty percent are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens.[10][82] FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 laptop keyboard
A few can still be seen on the building itself. The Greek government has campaigned since 1983 for the British Museum to return the sculptures to Greece.[82] The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures,[83] FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 laptop keyboard
and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the Museum to do so (which would require legislation). Nevertheless, FUJITSU CP307045-01 laptop keyboard
talks between senior representatives from Greek and British cultural ministries, and their legal advisors took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, and there were hopes that the two sides may move a step closer to a resolution.[84] HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. After some delay a Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1983.[85] TOSHIBA Satellite L40-15V Laptop Keyboard
The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. An archaeological committee thoroughly documented every artifact remaining on the site, and architects assisted with computer models to determine their original locations. HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use. In some cases, SONY VAIO VGN NR310E/T Laptop Keyboard
prior re-construction was found to be incorrect. These were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began.[86] Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins that were completely coated in lead, HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated, and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble.[87] All new metalwork uses titanium, a strong, light, and corrosion resistant material. HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
The Parthenon will not be restored to a pre-1687 state, but the explosion damage will be mitigated as much as possible, both in the interest of restoring the structural integrity of the edifice (important in this earthquake-prone region) TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
and to restore the aesthetic integrity by filling in chipped sections of column drums and lintels, using precisely sculpted marble cemented in place. New Pentelic marble is being used from the original quarry. Ultimately, HP HDX18-1080EG Laptop Keyboard
almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the structure where they originally would have been, supported as needed by modern materials. While the repairs initially show as white against the weathered tan of original surfaces, they will become less prominent as they age.[citation needed] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Pronounced features of both Greek and Roman versions of the Doric order are the alternating triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs are decoratively grooved with three vertical grooves ("tri-glyph") SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
and represent the original wooden end-beams, which rest on the plain architrave that occupies the lower half of the entablature. Under each triglyph are peglike "stagons" or "guttae" (literally: drops) that appear as if they were hammered in from below to stabilize the post-and-beam (trabeated) construction. They also served to "organize" rainwater runoff from above. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
A triglyph is centered above every column, with another (or sometimes two) between columns, though the Greeks felt that the corner triglyph should form the corner of the entablature, creating an inharmonious mismatch with the supporting column. The spaces between the triglyphs are the "metopes". DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
They may be left plain, or they may be carved in low relief.
The architecture followed rules of harmony. Since the original design came from wooden temples and the triglyphs were real heads of wooden beams, every column had to bear a beam which lay across the centre of the column. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
Triglyphs were arranged regularly; the last triglyph was centred upon the last column (illustration, right: I.). This was regarded as the ideal solution which had to be reached.
Changing to stone cubes instead of wooden beams required full support of the architrave load at the last column. HP G72-b66US Laptop Keyboard
At the first temples the final triglyph was moved (illustration, right: II.), still terminating the sequence, but leaving a gap disturbing the regular order. Even worse, the last triglyph was not centered with the corresponding column. That “archaic” manner was not regarded as a harmonious design. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
The resulting problem is called the doric corner conflict. Another approach was to apply a broader corner triglyph (III.) but was not really satisfying.
Because the metopes are somewhat flexible in their proportions, the modular space between columns (“intercolumniation”) Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
can be adjusted by the architect. Often the last two columns were set slightly closer together (corner contraction), to give a subtle visual strengthening to the corners. That is called the “classic” solution of the corner conflict (IV.). SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard
Triglyphs could be arranged in a harmonic manner again, and the corner was terminated with a triglyph. However, final triglyph and column were often not centered.
Early examples of the Doric order include the temples at Paestum in southern Italy, HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
a region called Magna Graecia, which was settled by Greek colonists and retained a strongly Hellenic culture.
The Temple of the Delians is a “peripteral” Doric order temple, the largest of three dedicated to Apollo on the island of Delos. ASUS X53 Laptop Keyboard
It was begun in 478 BC and never completely finished. During their period of independence from Athens, the Delians reassigned the temple to the island of Poros. It is “hexastyle”, with six columns across the pedimented end and thirteen along each long face. HP 540 Laptop Keyboard
All the columns are centered under a triglyph in the frieze, except for the corner columns. The plain, unfluted shafts on the columns stand directly on the platform (the stylobate), without bases. The recessed “necking” at the top of the shafts and the wide cushionlike echinus are slightly self-conscious archaicizing features, for Delos is Apollo's ancient birthplace. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
A classic statement of the Greek Doric order is the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, built about 447 BC. The contemporary Parthenon, the largest temple in classical Athens, is also in the Doric order, although the sculptural enrichment is more familiar in the Ionic order: Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
the Greeks were never as doctrinaire in the use of the Classical vocabulary as Renaissance theorists or neoclassical architects. The detail (illustration, left), part of the basic vocabulary of trained architects from the later 18th century onwards, shows how the width of the metopes was flexible: here they bear the famous bas-relief sculptures of the battle of Lapiths and Centaurs. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
In the Roman Doric version (illustration, left), the height of the entablature has been reduced. The endmost triglyph is centered over the column rather than occupying the corner of the architrave. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
The columns are slightly less robust in their proportions. Below their caps, an astragal molding encircles the column like a ring. Crown moldings soften transitions between frieze and cornice and emphasize the upper edge of the abacus, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
which is the upper part of the capital. Roman Doric columns also have moldings at their bases and stand on low square pads or are even raised on plinths. In the Roman Doric mode, columns are not invariably fluted. Since the Romans dropped the request of the triglyphDELL Latitude D820 Laptop Keyboard
covered corner, now both columns and triglyphs could be arranged in equidistant order again and well centered together. The architrave corner needed to be left “blank” (illustration, right, V.).
The Roman architect Vitruvius, following contemporary practice, outlined in his treatise the procedure for laying out constructions based on a module, which he took to be one half a column's diameter, taken at the base. An illustration of Andrea Palladio's Doric order, HP G62-b60SV Laptop Keyboard
as it was laid out, with modules identified, by Isaac Ware, in The Four Books of Palladio's Architecture (London, 1738) is illustrated at Vitruvian module.
When Greek Revival architecture was introduced at the beginning of the 19th century, the Greek Doric order had not previously been widely used. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
The first engraved illustrations of the Greek Doric order dated to the mid-18th century. Its appearance in the new phase of Classicism brought with it new connotations of high-minded primitive simplicity, HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
seriousness of purpose, noble sobriety, and, in the United States, republican virtues. In a customs house, Greek Doric suggested incorruptibility; in a Protestant church a Greek Doric porch promised a return to an untainted early church; it was equally appropriate for a library, a bank or a trustworthy public utility (illustration, left).
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[1] This gives the Doric columns a shorter, thicker look than Ionic columns, which have 8:1 proportions. It is suggested that these proportions give the Doric columns a masculine appearance, HP Pavilion dv4-1242tx Laptop Keyboard
whereas the more slender Ionic columns appear represent a more feminine look. This sense of masculinity and femininity was often used to determine which type of column would be used for a particular structure. ASUS F80C Laptop Keyboard
Examples
The Greco-Persian Wars (also often called the Persian Wars) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and city-states of the Hellenic world that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC. The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began whenCyrus the Great conquered Ionia in 547 BC. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Struggling to rule the independent-minded cities of Ionia, the Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them. This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike. HP 537753-001 Laptop Keyboard
In 499 BC, the then-tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, embarked on an expedition to conquer the island of Naxos, with Persian support;[2] however, the expedition was a debacle and, pre-empting his dismissal, Aristagoras incited all of Hellenic Asia Minor into rebellion against the Persians. HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard
This was the beginning of the Ionian Revolt, which would last until 493 BC, progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict. Aristagoras secured military support from Athens and Eretria, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
and in 498 BC these forces helped to capture and burn the Persian regional capital of Sardis. The Persian king Darius the Great vowed to have revenge on Athens and Eretria for this act. The revolt continued, with the two sides effectively stalemated throughout 497–495 BC. In 494 BC, the Persians regrouped, and attacked the epicentre of the revolt in Miletus. HP Pavilion dv3-2154ca Laptop Keyboard
At the Battle of Lade, the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat, and the rebellion collapsed, with the final members being stamped out the following year.
Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts and from the interference of the mainland Greeks, HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
Darius embarked on a scheme to conquer Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria for burning Sardis. The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC, with the Persian general Mardonius conquering Thrace and Macedon before several mishaps forced an early end to the campaign. In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece, TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-S5151 Laptop Keyboard
this time across the Aegean Sea, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. This expedition subjugated the Cyclades, before besieging, capturing and razing Eretria. However, while en route to attack Athens, the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon, ending Persian efforts for the time being. DELL Inspiron 1520 Laptop Keyboard
Darius then began to plan to complete the conquest of Greece, but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son Xerxes I. In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led the second Persian invasion of Greece with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled. Victory over the 'Allied' TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
Greek states (led by Sparta and Athens) at the Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to torch Athens and overrun most of Greece. However, while seeking to destroy the combined Greek fleet, the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the Battle of Salamis. HP G62-b53SE Laptop Keyboard
The following year, the confederated Greeks went on the offensive, defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea, and ending the invasion of Greece.
The allied Greeks followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale, before expelling Persian garrisons from Sestos (479 BC) SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
and Byzantium (478 BC). The actions of the generalPausanias at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans, and the anti-Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
as the so-called Delian League. The Delian League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades, beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe. At the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 BC, HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia. However, the League's involvement in an Egyptian revolt (from 460–454 BC) resulted in a disastrous defeat, and further campaigning was suspended. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
A fleet was sent to Cyprus in 451 BC, but achieved little, and when it withdrew the Greco-Persian Wars drew to a quiet end. Some historical sources suggest the end of hostilities was marked by a peace treaty between Athens and Persia, the so-called Peace of Callias. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Almost all the primary sources for the Greco-Persian Wars are Greek; there are no surviving historical accounts from the Persian side. By some distance, the main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History",[3] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then part of the Persian empire). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—Historia; English—(The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been recent history.[4] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
Herodotus's approach was novel and, at least in Western society, he invented 'history' as a discipline.[4] As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."[4]
Some later ancient historians, starting with Thucydides, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard
criticised Herodotus.[5][6] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos) and felt Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.[6] Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
(barbarian-lover) for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.[7] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds that have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.[8] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.[8] Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.[9] ACER Aspire 5720 Laptop Keyboard
The military history of Greece between the end of the second Persian invasion of Greece and the Peloponnesian War (479–431 BC) is not well supported by surviving ancient sources. This period, sometimes referred to as the pentekontaetia by ancient scholars, was a period of relative peace and prosperity within Greece.[10][11] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
The richest source for the period, and also the most contemporaneous, is Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, which is generally considered by modern historians to be a reliable primary account.[12][13][14] Thucydides only mentions this period in a digression on the growth of Athenian power in the run up to the Peloponnesian War, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and the account is brief, probably selective and lacks any dates.[15][16] Nevertheless, Thucydides's account can be, and is, used by historians to draw up a skeleton chronology for the period, on to which details from archaeological records and other writers can be superimposed.[15] DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard
More detail for the whole period is provided by Plutarch, in his biographies of Themistocles, Aristides and especially Cimon. Plutarch was writing some 600 years after the events in question, and is therefore a secondary source, SAMSUNG BA59-02709A Laptop Keyboard
but he often names his sources, which allows some degree of verification of his statements.[17] In his biographies, he draws directly from many ancient histories that have not survived, and thus often preserves details of the period that are omitted in Herodotus and Thucydides's accounts. ACER Aspire 9120 laptop keyboard
The final major existing source for the period is the universal history (Bibliotheca historica) of the 1st century BC Sicilian, Diodorus Siculus. Much of Diodorus's writing about this period is drawn from the much earlier Greek historian Ephorus, Compaq Presario CQ62-a50SH laptop keyboard
who also wrote a universal history.[18] Diodorus is also a secondary source and often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else.[19] SONY VAIO VGN-FS395VP laptop keyboard
Further scattered details can be found in Pausanias's Description of Greece, while the Byzantine Suda dictionary of the 10th century AD preserves some anecdotes found nowhere else. Minor sources for the period include the works of Pompeius Trogus(epitomized by Justinus), Lenovo Ideapad G560 laptop keyboard
Cornelius Nepos and Ctesias of Cnidus (epitomized by Photius), which are not in their original textual form. These works are not considered reliable (especially Ctesias), and are not particularly useful for reconstructing the history of this period.[20][21] HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
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The first campaign, in 492 BC, was led by Darius's son-in-law Mardonius,[70] who re-subjugated Thrace, which had nominally been part of the Persian empire since 513 BC.[71] Mardonius was also able to force Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia; it had previously been allied but independent.[72] However, Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard
further progress in this campaign was prevented when Mardonius's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Mount Athos. Mardonius himself was then injured in a raid on his camp by a Thracian tribe, and after this he returned with the rest of the expedition to Asia.[72][73] HP Mini 110-3000 CTO laptop keyboard
The following year, having given clear warning of his plans, Darius sent ambassadors to all the cities of Greece, demanding their submission.[74] He received it from almost all of them, except Athens and Sparta, HP Mini 110-3103sl laptop keyboard
both of whom instead executed the ambassadors.[74] With Athens still defiant, and Sparta now also effectively at war with him, Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year.[75] ASUS V020662BS1 laptop keyboard
In 490 BC, Datis and Artaphernes (son of the satrap Artaphernes) were given command of an amphibious invasion force, and set sail from Cilicia.[75] The Persian force sailed from Cilicia first to the island of Rhodes, where a Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos, but was unsuccessful.[76] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard
The fleet sailed next to Naxos, to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier.[77] Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains; those that the Persians caught were enslaved.[78] HP Mini 210-1050EI laptop keyboard
The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians.[78] The fleet then proceeded to island-hop across the rest of the Aegean on its way to Eretria, taking hostages and troops from each island.[77] HP Pavilion dv6-2192el laptop keyboard
The task force sailed on to Euboea, and to the first major target, Eretria.[79] The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians from landing or advancing and thus allowed themselves to be besieged.[80] For six days, the Persians attacked the walls, with losses on both sides;[80] SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard
however, on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians.[80] The city was razed, and temples and shrines were looted and burned. Furthermore, according to Darius's commands, the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople.[80] COMPAQ Presario CQ40 laptop keyboard
Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, HP Pavilion DV7-3165dx laptop keyboard
including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse racesand chariot races.[109] During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.[109] HP Pavilion dv6-3103er laptop keyboard
An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign.[113] In addition, he also revived the practice of publicbanquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded theCapitoline Games, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.[114] Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole Empire and attributed the prizes. FUJITSU Lifebook E8310 Laptop Keyboard
Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights.[115] Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, SONY VAIO VPCF1290X Laptop Keyboard
besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams.
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor, SONY VAIO VGN-FW190NDH Laptop Keyboard
his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, HP Pavilion DV7-2122tx Laptop Keyboard
much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum.
Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquilius, Cassius Dio, Pliny the Elder, ACER Aspire 4920 Laptop Keyboard
present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard
For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.[116]
Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, ASUS U3S Laptop Keyboard
his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century AD, and the culmination of the 'Pax Romana'. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard
His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.[117] GATEWAY V030946FS1 US laptop keyboard
Religious demography among Indigenous Australians is not conclusive because the methodology of the census is not always well-suited to obtaining accurate information on Aboriginal people.[87] In the 2006 census, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
73% of the Indigenous population reported an affiliation with a Christian denomination, 24% reported no religious affiliation and 1% reported affiliation with an Australian Aboriginal traditional religion.[88] A small but growing minority of Aborigines are followers of Islam.[89]
Aboriginal people traditionally adhered to animist spiritual frameworks. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
Within Aboriginal belief systems, a formative epoch known as 'the Dreamtime' stretches back into the distant past when the creator ancestors known as the First Peoples travelled across the land, creating and naming as they went.[90] DELL NSK-DE101 laptop keyboard
Indigenous Australia's oral tradition and religious values are based upon reverence for the land and a belief in this Dreamtime.
The Dreaming is at once both the ancient time of creation and the present-day reality of Dreaming. SONY VAIO VGN-CR11GH laptop keyboard
There were a great many different groups, each with its own individual culture, belief structure, and language. These cultures overlapped to a greater or lesser extent, and evolved over time. Major ancestral spirits include the Rainbow Serpent, Baiame, Dirawong and Bunjil. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
The various Indigenous Australian communities developed unique musical instruments and folk styles. The didgeridoo, which is widely thought to be a stereotypical instrument of Aboriginal people, DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
was traditionally played by people of only the easternKimberley region and Arnhem Land (such as the Yolngu), and then by only the men.[91] Clapping sticks are probably the more ubiquitous musical instrument, especially because they help maintain rhythm for songs. GATEWAY M-6813M Laptop Keyboard
Contemporary Australian aboriginal music is predominantly of the country music genre. Most Indigenous radio stations – particularly in metropolitan areas – serve a double purpose as the local country-music station. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard
More recently, Indigenous Australian musicians have branched into rock and roll, hip hop and reggae. One of the most well known modern bands is Yothu Yindi playing in a style which has been called Aboriginal rock. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
[citation needed] Another popular band was the Warumpi Bandformed by Neil Murray and charismatic frontman, George Burarrwanga. In 1986, Midnight Oil and the Warumpi Band embarked on the "Blackfella/Whitefella Tour".Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 Laptop Keyboard
Amongst young Australian Aboriginal peoples, African-American and Aboriginal hip hop music and clothing is popular.[92]Aboriginal boxing champion and former rugby league player Anthony Mundine identified US rapper Tupac Shakur as a personal inspiration, after Mundine's release of his 2007 single, Platinum Ryder.[93] SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
Listen to an excerpt of Indigenous tribal music from the Yirrkala district in far north-east Arnhem Land, recorded by AP Elkin on australianscreen online.
At the Sydney 2000 Olympics, Christine Anu sang the song "My Island Home" at the Closing Ceremony.[94] HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years.[95] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the UNESCOlisted sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney.[96][97][98] SONY VAIO VGN-NW20SF Laptop Keyboard
The Sydney rock engravings are approximately 5000 to 200 years old. Murujuga in Western Australia has the Friends of Australian Rock Art have advocated its preservation, and the numerous engravings there were heritage listed in 2007.[99][100] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
In terms of age and abundance, cave art in Australia is comparable to that of Lascaux andAltamira in Europe,[101] and Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world.[102] There are three major regional styles: Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
the geometric style found in Central Australia, Tasmania, the Kimberley and Victoria known for its concentric circles, arcs and dots; the simple figurative style found in Queensland and the complex figurative style found in Arnhem Land and the Kimberley which includes X-Ray art, Gwian Gwian (Bradshaw) and Wunjina. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard
These designs generally carry significance linked to the spirituality of the Dreamtime.[103] Paintings were usually created in earthy colours, from paint made from ochre. Such ochres were also used to paint their bodies for ceremonial purposes. HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard
Modern Aboriginal artists continue the tradition, using modern materials in their artworks. Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times, including the watercolour paintings of the Hermannsburg School, and the acrylic Papunya Tula"dot art" IBM ThinkPad T40p 2668 Laptop Keyboard
movement. William Barak (c.1824–1903) was one of the last traditionally educated of the Wurundjeri-willam, people who come from the district now incorporating the city of Melbourne. He remains notable for his artworks which recorded traditional Aboriginal ways for the education of Westerners SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard
(which remain on permanent exhibition at the Ian Potter Centre of the National Gallery of Victoria and at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery. Margaret Preston (1875–1963) was among the early non-indigenous painters to incorporate Aboriginal influences in her works. HP Pavilion dv6-2131el laptop keyboard
Albert Namatjira (1902–1959) is one of the most famous Australian artists and an Arrernte man. His landscapes inspired the Hermannsburg School of art. The works of Elizabeth Durack are notable for their fusion of Western and indigenous influences. Lenovo 3000 G450 2949 laptop keyboard
Since the 1970s, indigenous artists have employed the use of acrylic paints – with styles such as that of the Western Desert Art Movement becoming globally renowned 20th-century art movements. HP Mini 210-2103tu laptop keyboard
The National Gallery of Australia exhibits a great many indigenous art works, including those of the Torres Strait Islands who are known for their traditional sculpture and headgear.[104]
By 1788, HP 640208-001 Laptop Keyboard
Indigenous Australians had not developed a system of writing, so the first literary accounts of Aborigines come from the journals of early European explorers, which contain descriptions of first contact, both violent and friendly. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Early accounts by Dutch explorers and the English buccaneer William Dampier wrote of the "natives of New Holland" as being "barbarous savages", but by the time of Captain James Cook and First Fleet marine Watkin Tench (the era of Jean-Jacques Rousseau), SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard
accounts of Aborigines were more sympathetic and romantic: "these people may truly be said to be in the pure state of nature, and may appear to some to be the most wretched upon the earth; but in reality they are far happier than ... we Europeans", wrote Cook in his journal on 23 August 1770. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Letters written by early Aboriginal leaders like Bennelong and Sir Douglas Nicholls are retained as treasures of Australian literature, as is the historic Yirrkala bark petitions of 1963 which is the first traditional Aboriginal document recognised by the Australian Parliament.[105] SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard
David Unaipon (1872–1967) is credited as providing the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal: Legendary Tales of the Aborigines; he is known as the first Aboriginal author. Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1995) Lenovo 45N2036 Laptop Keyboard
was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist credited with publishing the first Aboriginal book of verse: HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard
We Are Going(1964).[106] Sally Morgan's novel My Place was considered a breakthrough memoir in terms of bringing indigenous stories to wider notice. Leading Aboriginal activists Marcia Langton (First Australians, 2008) and Noel Pearson("Up From the Mission", 2009) are active contemporary contributors to Australian literature. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
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