Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (French: [pjɛʁ ʒɔzɛf pʁudɔ̃]) (15 January 1809 – 19 January 1865) was a French politician, the founder of Mutualist philosophy, an economist and a libertarian socialist. He was the first person to declare himself an anarchist [1] and is among its most influential theorists. COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard
He is considered by many to be the "father of anarchism".[2] He became a member of the French Parliament after the revolution of 1848, whereupon and thereafter he referred to himself as a federalist.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-NW18H/T laptop keyboard
Proudhon, who was born in Besançon, was a printer who taught himself Latin in order to better print books in the language. His best-known assertion is that Property is Theft!, contained in his first major work, What is Property? Or, HP Pavilion dv6-2090eg laptop keyboard
an Inquiry into the Principle of Right and Government (Qu'est-ce que la propriété? Recherche sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement), published in 1840. The book's publication attracted the attention of the French authorities. Compaq Presario CQ56-129NR laptop keyboard
It also attracted the scrutiny of Karl Marx, who started a correspondence with its author. The two influenced each other: they met in Paris while Marx was exiled there. Their friendship finally ended when Marx responded to Proudhon's The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty with the provocatively titled The Poverty of Philosophy. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
The dispute became one of the sources of the split between the anarchist andMarxian wings of the International Working Men's Association. Some, such as Edmund Wilson, have contended that Marx's attack on Proudhon had its origin in the latter's defense of Karl Grün, whom Marx bitterly disliked, but who had been preparing translations of Proudhon's work. ACER NSK-H3M1D laptop keyboard
Proudhon favored workers' associations or co-operatives, as well as individual worker/peasant possession, over private ownership or the nationalization of land and workplaces. He considered social revolution to be achievable in a peaceful manner. In The Confessions of a Revolutionary Proudhon asserted that, SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard
Anarchy is Order Without Power, the phrase which much later inspired, in the view of some, the anarchist circled-A symbol, today "one of the most common graffiti on the urban landscape."[4] He unsuccessfully tried to create a national bank, to be funded by what became an abortive attempt at an income tax on capitalists and shareholders. Similar in some respects to a credit union, it would have given interest-free loans.[5] DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
Proudhon was born in Besançon, France on February 15, 1809, at 37 Rue du Petit Battant in the suburb of Battant.[6] His father, Claude-François Proudhon who worked as a brewer and a cooper,[7] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
was originally from the village of Chasnans, near the border with Switzerland. His mother, Catherine Simonin was from Cordiron.[6] Claude-François and Catherine had five boys together, two of whom died at a very young age. Proudhon's brothers Jean-Etienne and Claude were born in 1811 and 1816, respectively, Packard Bell PEW76 laptop keyboard
and both maintained a very close relationship with Proudhon.[7]
As a boy, he mostly worked in the family tavern, helped with basic agricultural work, and spent time playing outdoors in the countryside. Proudhon received no formal education as a child, but was taught to read by his mother, who had him spelling words by age three. However, until he was 10, the only books that he was exposed to were 'the Gospels and theFour Aymon Brothers', HP 405963-001 laptop keyboard
and some local almanacs. In 1820, Proudhon's mother began trying to get him admitted into the city college in Besançon. The family was far too poor to afford the tuition, but with the help of one of Claude-François' former employers, she managed to gain a bursary which deducted 120 francs a year from the cost. SONY VAIO PCG-FR55/B laptop keyboard
Proudhon was unable to afford books (or even shoes) to attend school, which caused him great difficulties, and often made him the object of scorn by his wealthier classmates. In spite of this, Proudhon showed a strong will to learn, and spent much time in the school library with a pile of books, exploring a variety of subjects in his free time outside of class.[8] TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6841 laptop keyboard
In 1827 Proudhon began an apprenticeship at a printing press in the house of Bellevaux, in Battant; on Easter of the following year, he transferred to a press in Besançon owned by the family of one of his schoolmates, Antoine Gauthier.[9] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx laptop keyboard
Besançon was an important center of religious thought at the time, and most of the works published at Gauthier wereecclesiastical works. Proudhon, during the course of his work, spent hours every day reading this Christian literature and began to question many of his long held religious beliefs which eventually led him to reject Christianity altogether.[10] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Over the years, Proudhon rose to be a corrector for the press, proofreading their publications. By 1829, he began to become more interested in social issues than religious theory. Of particular importance during this period was his encounter with Charles Fourier, who in 1829 came to Gauthier as a customer seeking to publish his work Le Nouveau Monde Industriel et Sociétaire. HP 633736-001 laptop keyboard
Proudhon supervised the printing of the book, which gave him ample opportunity to talk with Fourier about a variety of social and philosophical issues. These discussions left a strong impression on Proudhon, and influenced him throughout his life.[11] It was also during this time that Proudhon formed one of his closest friendships, SONY VGN-FE28B laptop keyboard
with Gustave Fallot, a scholar from Montebéliard who came from a family of wealthy French industrialists. Impressed by Proudhon's corrections of one of his Latin manuscripts, Fallot sought out his friendship, ACER TravelMate 3232WXMi Laptop Keyboard
and the two were soon regularly spending their evenings together discussing French literature by Montaigne, Rabelais, Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, and many other authors to whom Proudhon had not been exposed during his years of theological readings.[12] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
In September 1830, Proudhon became certified as a journeyman compositor. The period following this was marked by unemployment and poverty, with Proudhon travelling around France (and also, briefly, to Neufchâtel, Switzerland) where he unsuccessfully sought stable employment in printing and as a schoolteacher.[13] HP 530580-001 laptop keyboard
During this period, Fallot offered financial assistance to Proudhon if he came to Paris to study philosophy. Proudhon accepted his offer, despite concerns about how it might disrupt his career in the printing trade.[14] He walked from Besançon to Paris, arriving in March at the Rue Mazarin, in the Latin Quarter, where Fallot was living at the time. DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
Proudhon began mingling amongst the circle of metropolitan scholars surrounding Fallot, but felt out of place and uncomfortable amidst people who were both wealthier, and more accustomed to scholarly debate. Ultimately, Proudhon found that he preferred to spend the majority of his time, studying alone, and was not fond of urban life, DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
longing to return home to Besançon.[15] The cholera outbreak in Paris granted him his wish to return home, when Fallot was struck with the illness, making him unable to financially support Proudhon any longer. After Proudhon left, he never saw Fallot (who died in 1836) again.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
However, this friendship was one of the most important events in Proudhon's life, as it is what motivated him to leave the printing trade, and pursue his studies of philosophy instead.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-FS640/W laptop keyboard
In 1838, after an unsuccessful printing business venture, Proudhon decided to dedicate himself fully to scholarly pursuits. He applied for the Suard Pension, a bursary that would enable him to study at the Academy of Besançon. Proudhon was selected out of several candidates, primarily due to the fact that his income was much lower than the others, HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
and the judges were extremely impressed by his writing, and the level of education he had given himself while working as an artisan. Proudhon arrived in Paris towards the end of autumn in 1838.[18] SONY VAIO VGN-FS640/W laptop keyboard
In 1839 the Academy of Besançon held an essay competition on the subject of 'the utility of the celebration of Sunday in regard to hygiene, morality, and the relationship of the family and the city'. Proudhon's entry, titled De la Célébration du dimanche, SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
essentially used the essay subject as a pretext for discussing a variety of political and philosophical ideas, and in it one can find the seeds of his later revolutionary ideas. Many of his ideas on authority, morality, HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
and property disturbed the essay judges at the Academy, and Proudhon was only awarded the bronze medal (something in which Proudhon took pride, because he felt that this was an indicator that his writing made elite academics uncomfortable).[19] HP AE0P7U00010 laptop keyboard
In 1840 he published his first work Qu'est-ce que la propriété (or "What Is Property").[citation needed]
His third memoir on property was a letter to the Fourierist, M. Considérant; he was tried for it at Besançon but was acquitted. In 1846, he published theSystème des contradictions économiques ou Philosophie de la misère (or "The System of Economic Contradictions, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
or The Philosophy of Poverty"). For some time, Proudhon ran a small printing establishment at Besançon, but without success; afterwards he became connected as a kind of manager with a commercial firm in Lyon, France. In 1847, he left this job and finally settled in Paris, where he was now becoming celebrated as a leader of innovation. In this year he also became a Freemason.[20] HP G62-b21SL laptop keyboard
Proudhon was surprised by the Revolutions of 1848 in France. He participated in the February uprising and the composition of what he termed "the first republican proclamation" of the new republic. But he had misgivings about the new provisional government, headed by Dupont de l'Eure (1767–1855), who, since theFrench Revolution in 1789, ASUS A8H laptop keyboard
had been a longstanding politician, although often in the opposition. Beside Dupont de l'Eure, the provisional government was dominated by liberals such as Lamartine (Foreign Affairs),Ledru-Rollin (Interior), Crémieux (Justice), Burdeau (War), Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard
etc., because it was pursuing political reform at the expense of the socio-economic reform, which Proudhon considered basic. As during the 1830 July Revolution, the Republican-Socialist Party had set up a counter-government in the Hotel de Ville, includingLouis Blanc, Armand Marrast, Ferdinand Flocon, and workman Albert. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Proudhon published his own perspective for reform which was completed in 1849, Solution du problème social("Solution of the Social Problem"), in which he laid out a program of mutual financial cooperation among workers. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
He believed this would transfer control of economic relations from capitalists and financiers to workers. The central part of his plan was the establishment of a bank to provide credit at a very low rate of interest and the issuing of exchange notes that would circulate instead of money based on gold. HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard
During the Second French Republic (1848–1852), Proudhon had his biggest public effect through journalism. He got involved with four newspapers: Le Représentant du Peuple (February 1848 – August 1848); Le Peuple (September 1848 – June 1849); La Voix du Peuple(September 1849 –DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
May 1850); Le Peuple de 1850 (June 1850 – October 1850). His polemical writing style, combined with his perception of himself as a political outsider, produced a cynical, combative journalism that appealed to many French workers but alienated others. DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard
He repeatedly criticised the government's policies and promoted reformation of credit and exchange. He tried to establish a popular bank (Banque du peuple) early in 1849, but despite over 13,000 people signing up (mostly workers), receipts were limited falling short of 18,000FF and the whole enterprise was essentially stillborn.[clarification needed] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon ran for the constituent assembly in April 1848, but was not elected, although his name appeared on the ballots in Paris, Lyon, Besançon, and Lille, France. He was successful, in the complementary elections of June 4, and served as a deputy during the debates over the National Workshops, created by the February 25, COMPAQ Presario CQ50-215CA Laptop Keyboard
1848, decree passed by Republican Louis Blanc. The workshops were to give work to the unemployed. Proudhon was never enthusiastic about such workshops, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
perceiving them to be essentially charitable institutions that did not resolve the problems of the economic system. He was against their elimination unless an alternative could be found for the workers who relied on the workshops for subsistence. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
In 1848 the closing of the National Workshops provoked the June Days Uprising and the violence shocked Proudhon. Visiting the barricades personally, he later reflected that his presence at the Bastille at this time was "one of the most honorable acts of my life". TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
But in general during the tumultuous events of 1848, Proudhon opposed insurrection by preaching peaceful conciliation, a stance that was in accord with his lifelong stance against violence. He disapproved of the revolts and demonstrations of February, May, and June 1848, though sympathetic to the social and psychological injustices that the insurrectionists had been forced to endure. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
To be GOVERNED is to be watched, inspected, spied upon, directed, law-driven, numbered, regulated, enrolled, indoctrinated, preached at, controlled, checked, estimated, valued, censured, commanded, by creatures who have neither the right nor the wisdom nor the virtue to do so. To be GOVERNED is to be at every operation, GATEWAY V030946FS1 US Laptop Keyboard
at every transaction noted, registered, counted, taxed, stamped, measured, numbered, assessed, licensed, authorized, admonished, prevented, forbidden, reformed, corrected, punished. It is, under pretext of public utility, HP 496878-001 Laptop Keyboard
and in the name of the general interest, to be place[d] under contribution, drilled, fleeced, exploited, monopolized, extorted from, squeezed, hoaxed, robbed; then, at the slightest resistance, the first word of complaint, to be repressed, fined, vilified, harassed, hunted down, abused, clubbed, disarmed, bound, SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard
choked, imprisoned, judged, condemned, shot, deported, sacrificed, sold, betrayed; and to crown all, mocked, ridiculed, derided, outraged, dishonored. That is government; that is its justice; that is its morality.[25] HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon in his earliest works analyzed the nature and problems of the capitalist economy. While deeply critical of capitalism, he also objected to those contemporary socialists who advocated centralized, hierarchical forms of association or state control of the economy. In a sequence of commentaries, fromWhat is Property? (1840), HP Pavilion G6-1B67CL laptop keyboard
posthumously published in the Théorie de la propriété (Theory of Property, 1863–64), he declared in turn that "property is theft", "property is impossible", "property is despotism", and "property is freedom". When he said "property is theft", DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
he was referring to the landowner or capitalist who he believed "stole" the profits from laborers. For Proudhon, the capitalist's employee was "subordinated, exploited: his permanent condition is one of obedience".[27] GATEWAY M600 laptop keyboard
In asserting that property is freedom, he was referring not only to the product of an individual's labor, but to the peasant or artisan's home and tools of his trade and the income he received by selling his goods. For Proudhon, the only legitimate source of property is labor. ACER KB.TNT07.002 laptop keyboard
What one produces is one's property and anything beyond that is not. He advocated worker self-management and was opposed to the private ownership of the means of production. As he put it in 1848: HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Under the law of association, transmission of wealth does not apply to the instruments of labour, so cannot become a cause of inequality... We are socialists... under universal association, ownership of the land and of the instruments of labour is social ownership... We want the mines, canals, railways handed over to democratically organised workers' associations... HP 6730S laptop keyboard
We want these associations to be models for agriculture, industry and trade, the pioneering core of that vast federation of companies and societies, joined together in the common bond of the democratic and social Republic.[28] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon called himself a socialist, but he opposed state ownership of capital goods in favour of ownership by workers themselves in associations. This makes him one of the first theorists of libertarian socialism. Proudhon was one of the main influences on the theory of workers' self-management(autogestion), in the late 19th and 20th century. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon strenuously rejected the ownership of the products of labor by society or the state, arguing in What is Property? that while "property in product [...] does not carry with it property in the means of production"[29] [...]HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
The right to product is exclusive [...] the right to means is common" and applied this to the land ("the land is [...] a common thing"[30]) and workplaces ("all accumulated capital being social property, no one can be its exclusive proprietor".[31]) FUJITSU Lifebook T4215 Laptop Keyboard
He argued that while society owned the means of production or land, users would control and run them (under supervision from society), with the "organising of regulating societies" in order to "regulate the market".[32] SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
This use-ownership he called "possession", and this economic system mutualism. Proudhon had many arguments against entitlement to land and capital, including reasons based on morality, economics, politics, and individual liberty. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
One such argument was that it enabled profit, which in turn led to social instability and war by creating cycles of debt that eventually overcame the capacity of labor to pay them off. Another was that it produced "despotism" and turned workers into wage workers subject to the authority of a boss. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
In What Is Property? Proudhon wrote:
Property, acting by exclusion and encroachment, while population was increasing, has been the life-principle and definitive cause of all revolutions. Religious wars, and wars of conquest, when they have stopped short of the extermination of races, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard
have been only accidental disturbances, soon repaired by the mathematical progression of the life of nations. The downfall and death of societies are due to the power of accumulation possessed by property. ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard
Towards the end of his life, Proudhon modified some of his earlier views. In The Principle of Federation (1863) he modified his earlier anti-state position, arguing for "the balancing of authority by liberty" and put forward a decentralised "theory of federal government".HP Pavilion dv3-2355ee Laptop Keyboard
He also defined anarchy differently as "the government of each by himself", which meant "that political functions have been reduced to industrial functions, and that social order arises from nothing but transactions and exchanges." This work also saw him call his economic system an "agro-industrial federation", HP Pavilion dv4-1220us Laptop Keyboard
arguing that it would provide "specific federal arrangements is to protect the citizens of the federated states from capitalist and financial feudalism, both within them and from the outside" and so stop the re-introduction of "wage labour." This was because "political right requires to be buttressed by economic right." COMPAQ Presario CQ50-104CA Laptop Keyboard
In the posthumously published Theory of Property, he argued that "property is the only power that can act as a counterweight to the State." Hence, "Proudhon could retain the idea of property as theft, and at the same time offer a new definition of it as liberty. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
There is the constant possibility of abuse, exploitation, which spells theft. At the same time property is a spontaneous creation of society and a bulwark against the ever-encroaching power of the State."[33] HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard
He continued to oppose both capitalist and state property. In Theory of Property he maintains: "Now in 1840, I categorically rejected the notion of property...for both the group and the individual", but then states his new theory of property: "SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
property is the greatest revolutionary force which exists, with an unequaled capacity for setting itself against authority..." and the "principal function of private property within the political system will be to act as a counterweight to the power of the State, and by so doing to insure the liberty of the individual." TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
However, he continued to oppose concentrations of wealth and property, arguing for small-scale property ownership associated with peasants and artisans. He still opposed private property in land: "What I cannot accept, regarding land, is that the work put in gives a right to ownership of what has been worked on." In addition, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
he still believed that that "property" should be more equally distributed and limited in size to that actually used by individuals, families and workers associations.[34] He supported the right of inheritance, and defended "as one of the foundations of the family and society."[35] HP Mini 210-1080NR Laptop Keyboard
However, he refused to extend this beyond personal possessions arguing that "[u]nder the law of association, transmission of wealth does not apply to the instruments of labour."[36]
As a consequence of his opposition to profit, wage labour, worker exploitation, ownership of land and capital, as well as to state property, Proudhon rejected both capitalism and communism. ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
He adopted the term mutualism for his brand of anarchism, which involved control of the means of production by the workers. In his vision, self-employed artisans, peasants, and cooperatives would trade their products on the market. For Proudhon, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
factories and other large workplaces would be run by "labor associations" operating on directly democratic principles. The state would be abolished; instead, society would be organized by a federation of "free communes" HP Pavilion dv6-3090ca Laptop Keyboard
a commune is a local municipality in French). In 1863 Proudhon said: "All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can be summed up in the words: agricultural-industrial federation. All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization."[37] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon opposed the charging of interest and rent, but did not seek to abolish them by law: "I protest that when I criticized... the complex of institutions of which property is the foundation stone, SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W Laptop Keyboard
I never meant to forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I think that all these manifestations of human activity should remain free and voluntary for all: I ask for them no modifications, restrictions or suppressions, other than those which result naturally and of necessity from the universalization of the principle of reciprocity which I propose."[38] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
He made few public criticisms of Marx or Marxism, because in his lifetime Marx was a relatively minor thinker; it was only after Proudhon's death that Marxism became a large movement. He did, however, criticize authoritarian socialists of his period. HP 367778-001 Laptop Keyboard
This included the state socialist Louis Blanc, of whom Proudhon said, "Let me say to M. Blanc: you desire neither Catholicism nor monarchy nor nobility, but you must have a God, a religion, a dictatorship, a censorship, a hierarchy, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2812 Laptop Keyboard
distinctions, and ranks. For my part, I deny your God, your authority, your sovereignty, your judicial State, and all your representative mystifications." It was Proudhon's book What is Property? that convinced the young Karl Marx that private property should be abolished. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
In one of his first works, The Holy Family, Marx said, "Not only does Proudhon write in the interest of the proletarians, he is himself a proletarian, an ouvrier. His work is a scientific manifesto of the French proletariat." Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Marx, however, disagreed with Proudhon's anarchism and later published vicious criticisms of Proudhon. Marx wrote The Poverty of Philosophy as a refutation of Proudhon's The Philosophy of Poverty. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon opposed militarism, dictatorship, and war, arguing that the "end of militarism is the mission of the nineteenth century, under pain of indefinite decadence"[39] and that the "workers alone are capable of putting an end to war by creating economic equilibrium. This presupposes a radical revolution in ideas and morals."[40] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
As Robert L. Hoffman notes that War and Peace “ends by condemning war without reservation” and its “conclusion [is] that war is obsolete.”[41]Marxist philosopher John Ehrenberg summarized Proudhon's position: ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard
If injustice was the cause of war, it followed that conflict could not be eliminated until society was reorganised along egalitarian lines. Proudhon had wanted to prove that the reign of political economy would be the reign of peace, finding it difficult to believe that people really thought he was defending militarism. – Proudhon and His Age, p. 145HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon argued that under mutualism "[t]here will no longer be nationality, no longer fatherland, in the political sense of the words: they will mean only places of birth. Man, of whatever race or colour he may be, is an inhabitant of the universe; citizenship is everywhere an acquired right."[42] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
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Proudhon also rejected dictatorship, stating in the 1860s that "what I will always be . . . a republican, a democrat even, and a socialist into the bargain."[43] Henri de Lubac argued that, in terms of Proudhon’s critique of democracy, "SONY KFRMBA221A Laptop Keyboard
we must not allow all this to hoodwink us. His invectives against democracy were not those of a counter-revolutionary. They were aimed at what he himself called 'the false democracy'...They attacked an apparently liberal 'pseudo-democracy' which 'was not economic and social' . . . 'DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
a Jacobinical democracy'" Proudhon "did not want to destroy, but complete, the work of 1789" and while "he had a grudge against the 'old democracy', the democracy of Robespierre and Marat" he repeatedly contrasted it "with a 'young democracy', which was a ‘social democracy.'"[44] SONY VAIO VGN-FZ210CE laptop keyboard
According to historian of anarchism George Woodcock, some positions Proudhon took "sorted oddly with his avowed anarchism". Woodcock cited for example Proudhon's proposition that each citizen perform one or two years militia service.[45] The proposal appeared in the Programme Revolutionaire, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
an electoral manifesto issued by Proudhon after he was asked to run for a position in the provisional government. The text reads: "7° 'L'armée. – Abolition immédiate de la conscription et des remplacements; obligation pour tout citoyen de faire, pendant un ou deux ans, le service militaire ; application de l'armée aux services administratifs ACER Aspire 5810TZ-4657 laptop keyboard
et travaux d'utilité publique." ("Military service by all citizens is proposed as an alternative to conscription and the practice of "replacement", by which those who could avoided such service.") However, in the same document, Proudhon described the "form of government" he was proposing as "a centralization analogous with that of the State, but in which no one obeys, no one is dependent, and everyone is free and sovereign."[46] ACER Aspire AS5335-2257 laptop keyboard
In addition to being considered a founding father of anarchism some of his ideas were adopted by national socialist parties.[47] He was first used as a reference in the Cercle Proudhon, a right-wing association formed in 1911 by George Valois and Edouard Berth. Both had been brought together by thesyndicalist ACER TravelMate 8215WLMi laptop keyboard
Georges Sorel. But they would tend toward a synthesis of socialism and nationalism, mixing Proudhon's mutualism with Charles Maurras'integralist nationalism. In 1925, George Valois founded the Faisceau, the first fascist league which took its name from Mussolini's fasci. Historian offascism, in particular of French fascists, Zeev Sternhell, has noted this use of Proudhon by the far-right. In The Birth Of Fascist Ideology, he states that: Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard
the Action Française...from its inception regarded the author of La philosophie de la misère as one of its masters.[48] He was given a place of honour in the weekly section of the journal of the movement entitled, precisely, 'Our Masters.' Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Proudhon owed this place in L'Action française to what the Maurrassians saw as his antirepublicanism, his anti-Semitism, his loathing of Rousseau, his disdain for the French Revolution,democracy, and parliamentarianism: and his championship of the nation, the family, tradition, and the monarchy. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
K. Steven Vincent, however, states that "to argue that Proudhon was a proto-fascist suggests that one has never looked seriously at Proudhon’s writings."[49]
J. Salwyn Schapiro argued in 1945 that Proudhon was a racist, "a glorifier of war for its own sake" and his "advocacy of personal dictatorship and his laudation of militarism can hardly be equalled in the reactionary writings of his or of our day."[50] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Other scholars have rejected Schapiro's claims. Graham Purchase states that while Proudhon was personally racist, "anti-semitism formed no part of Proudhon’s revolutionary programme."[51]
Albert Meltzer has said that though Proudhon used the term "anarchist", he was not one, and that he never engaged in "anarchist activity or struggle" but rather in "parliamentary activity".[52] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Proudhon also engaged in a series of published letters, between 1849 and 1850, with Frédéric Bastiat discussing the legitimacy of interest.[53] As Robert Leroux argued, Bastiat had the conviction that Proudhon's doctrine "was the complete antithesis of any serious approach".[citation needed] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Anti-semitism and sexism
Stewart Edwards, the editor of the Selected Writings Of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, remarks: "Proudhon's diaries (Carnets, ed. P. Haubtmann, Marcel Rivière, Paris 1960 to date) reveal that he had almost paranoid feelings of hatred against the Jews, common in Europe at the time. In 1847 he considered publishing an article against the Jewish race, SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
which he said he "hated". The proposed article would have "called for the expulsion of the Jews from France... The Jew is the enemy of the human race. This race must be sent back to Asia, or exterminated. H. Heine, A. Weil, and others are simply secret spies. Rothschild,Crémieux, Marx, Fould, evil choleric, envious, bitter men etc., etc., who hate us." (Carnets, vol. 2, p. 337: No VI, 178)[54] HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 laptop keyboard
In his diary, dated December 26, 1847, it states: Jews. Write an article against this race that poisons everything by sticking its nose into everything without ever mixing with any other people. Demand its expulsion from France with the exception of those individuals married to French women. HP Mini 110-1179TU laptop keyboard
Abolish synagogues and not admit them to any employment. Finally, pursue the abolition of this religion. It’s not without cause that the Christians called them deicide. The Jew is the enemy of humankind. They must be sent back to Asia or be exterminated. By steel or by fire or by expulsion the Jew must disappear.[54] Lenovo 3000 G430 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In an introduction to Proudhon's works Iain McKay, author of 'An Anarchist FAQ' (AK Press, 2007),[55][56] cautions readers: "This is not to say that Proudhon was without flaws, for he had many." SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
He was not consistently libertarian in his ideas, tactics and language. His personal bigotries are disgusting and few modern anarchists would tolerate them – Namely, racism and sexism. He made some bad decisions and occasionally ranted in his private notebooks (where the worst of his anti-Semitism was expressed). TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard
While he did place his defence of the patriarchal family at the core of his ideas, they are in direct contradiction to his own libertarian and egalitarian ideas. In terms of racism, he sometimes reflected the less-than-enlightened assumptions and prejudices of the nineteenth century. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ230P/B laptop keyboard
While this does appear in his public work, such outbursts are both rare and asides (usually an extremely infrequent passing anti-Semitic remark or caricature). In short, “racism was never the basis of Proudhon’s political thinking” (Gemie, 200-1) and “anti-Semitism formed no part of Proudhon’s revolutionary programme.” TOSHIBA NSK-T4D01 laptop keyboard
(Robert Graham, “Introduction”, General Idea of the Revolution, xxxvi) To quote Proudhon: “There will no longer be nationality, no longer fatherland, in the political sense of the words: they will mean only places of birth. Man, of whatever race or colour he may be, is an inhabitant of the universe; citizenship is everywhere an acquired right.” (General Idea of the Revolution, 283) HP Pavilion dv6-3050sg laptop keyboard
—Iain McKay, "Property Is Theft! A Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Anthology. AK Press UK – Edinburgh, 2011" p. 36
Nevertheless, while racism was not overtly part of his political philosophy, Proudhon did publicly express sexist beliefs. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
In her study of Gustave Courbet, who painted the portrait of Proudhon and his children (1865) – art historian Linda Nochlin points out that alongside his early articulations of anarchism Proudhon also wrote and published “the most consistent anti-feminist tract of its time, or perhaps, any other,” LFUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
a Pornocratie ou les femmes dans les temps modernes, which “raises all the main issues about woman’s position is society and her sexuality with a paranoid intensity unmatched in any other text.” (Nochlin, Courbet. Thames & Hudson, 2007. p. 220, note 34) DELL KR737 laptop keyboard
Proudhon's defenses of patriarchy did not go unchallenged in his lifetime; Joseph Déjacque attacked Proudhon's anti-feminism as a contradiction of anarchist principles. Déjacque directed Proudhon "either to 'speak out against man's exploitation of woman' SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
or 'do not describe yourself as an anarchist.'" (Jesse Cohn "Anarchism and gender" in: The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Immanuel Ness (Ed.), 2009)
The International Workingmen's Association (IWA, 1864–1876), SONY 1-487-385-21 laptop keyboard
often called the First International, was an international organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, communist[1] and anarchistpolitical groups and trade union organizations that were based on the working class and class struggle. It was founded in 1864 in a workmen's meeting held in Saint Martin's Hall, London. Its first congress was held in 1866 in Geneva. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
In Europe, a period of harsh reaction followed the widespread Revolutions of 1848. The next major phase of revolutionary activity began almost twenty years later with the founding of the IWA in 1864. At its peak, the IWA had 5 million members according to the police reports,[2] although the official journal reported 8 million members.[3] ACER Extensa 5235 laptop keyboard
On September 28, a great international meeting for the reception of the French delegates took place in St. Martin’s Hall in London. The meeting was attended by a wide array of European radicals, including English Owenites, GATEWAY ML3109 laptop keyboard
French followers ofPierre-Joseph Proudhon and Louis Auguste Blanqui, Irish and Polish nationalists, Italian republicans, and German socialists.[4] Included among the last-mentioned of this eclectic band was a somewhat obscure 46-year old émigré journalist, Karl Marx, who would soon come to play a decisive role in the organisation.[4] DELL Vostro PP37L laptop keyboard
The positivist historian Edward Spencer Beesly, a professor at London University, was in the chair.[4] His speech pilloried the violent proceedings of the governments and referred to their flagrant breaches of international law and advocated a union of the workers of the world for the realisation of justice on earth. George Odger, Secretary of the London Trades Council, read a speech calling for international co-operation. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
The meeting unanimously decided to found an international organisation of workers. The centre was to be in London, directed by a committee of 21, which was instructed to draft a programme and constitution. Most of the British members of the committee were drawn from the Universal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes[5] HP Pavilion dv6-3090ca laptop keyboard
and were noted trade-union leaders like Odger, George Howell (former secretary of the London Trades Council (LTC) which itself declined affiliation to the IWA (although remaining close to it)), Osborne, and Lucraft and included Owenites and Chartists. The French members were Denoual, Victor Le Lubez, HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
and Bosquet. Italy was represented by Fontana. Other members were: Louis Wolff, Johann Eccarius, and at the foot of the list, Karl Marx. Marx participated in his individual capacity, and did not speak during the meeting.[6] HP Mini 210-2060sb laptop keyboard
This executive committee in turn selected a subcommittee to do the actual writing of the organisational programme — a group which included Karl Marx and which met at his home about a week after the conclusion of the St. Martin's Hall assembly.[4] This subcommittee deferred the task of collective writing in favor of sole authorship by Marx, and it was he who ultimately drew up the fundamental documents of the new organisation.[4] DELL Inspiron 1720 laptop keyboard
On October 5, the General Council was formed with co-opted additional members representing other nationalities. It was based at the headquarters of theUniversal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes at 18 Greek Street.[7] DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard
Different groups offered proposals for the organisation: Louis Wolff (Mazzini's secretary) offered a proposal based on the rules and constitution of the Italian Workingmen’s Association (a Mazzinist organisation) and John Weston, an Owenite, also tabled a programme. Wolff left for Italy, and Lubez rewrote it in a way which appalled Marx. HP Mini 210-2004sa Laptop Keyboard
Through deft manipulation of the sub-committee Marx was left with all the papers, and set about writing the Address to the Working Classes to which was attached a simplified set of rules.
At its founding, the International Workingmen's Association was an alliance of people from diverse groups, including French Mutualists, Blanquists, English Owenites, Italian republicans, HP 441426-001 Laptop Keyboard
such American proponents of individualist anarchism as Stephen Pearl Andrews and William B. Greene, followers ofMazzini, and other socialists of various persuasions. Over its short life it grew into a major movement, with local federations in many countries developing strong bases of working class activism. Karl Marx was a constant, and leading, figure from the start—he was elected to every succeeding General Council of the association. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
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At first the IWA had mostly male membership, although in April 1865 it was agreed that women could become members. The initial leadership was exclusively male. At the IWA General Council meeting on 16 April 1867 a letter from the secularist speaker Harriet Law about Women's Rights was read, and it was agreed to ask her if she would be willing to attend council meetings. HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
On 25 June 1867 Law was admitted to the General Council, and for the next five years was the only woman representative.[8]
Due to the wide variety of philosophies present in the First International, there was conflict from the start. The first objections to Marx's influence came from the Mutualists who opposed communism and statism. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Laptop Keyboard
However, shortly after Mikhail Bakunin and his followers (called Collectivists while in the International) joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Perhaps the clearest differences between the groups emerged over their proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism. The anarchists grouped around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) "direct economical struggle against capitalism, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation." Marxist thinking, at that time, focused on parliamentary activity. For example, when the new German Empire of 1871 introduced male suffrage, many German socialists became active in the Marxist Social Democratic Party of Germany. HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
The Lausanne Congress of the International was held on September 2–8, 1867. Marx was unable to attend, as he was working on the final proofs of Das Kapital. The Congress was attended by 64 delegates from Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, HP 599572-001 Laptop Keyboard
Italy and Switzerland. The reports delivered recorded the increased influence of the International on the working classes in various countries. The Proudhonist delegates, primarily from France, influenced the orientation of the International’s activity and its programmatic principles. Despite the efforts of the General Council’s delegates, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
they succeeded in revising the resolutions of the Geneva Congress, passing a number of their resolutions, in particular on cooperation and credit.
However, the Congress confirmed the Geneva Congress resolutions on the economic struggle and strikes and passed a resolution on political freedom which emphasised that the social emancipation of workers was inseparable from political liberation. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Proudhonists also failed to seize the leadership of the International, as the Congress re-elected the General Council in its former composition and retained London as its seat.
However, HP G42-392TX Laptop Keyboard
the Lausanne Congress ignored the General Council’s resolution and resolved officially to take part in the Congress of the League of Peace and Freedom. However, this Congress was attended by several General Council and some other International members and failed to resolve its political differences. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon believed that the common conception of property conflated two distinct components which, once identified, demonstrated the difference between property used to further tyranny and property used to protect liberty. He argued that the result of an individual's labor which is currently occupied or used is a legitimate form of property. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Thus, he opposed unused land being regarded as property, believing that land can only be rightfully possessed by use or occupation (which he called "possession"). As an extension of his belief that legitimate property (possession) was the result of labor and occupation, he argued against such institutions as interest on loans and rent. HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
The proprietor, the robber, the hero, the sovereign — for all these titles are synonymous — imposes his will as law, and suffers neither contradiction nor control; that is, he pretends to be the legislative and the executive power at once . . . [and so] property engenders despotism . . . Lenovo 45N2141 laptop keyboard
That is so clearly the essence of property that, to be convinced of it, one need but remember what it is, and observe what happens around him. Property is the right to use and abuse . . . if goods are property, why should not the proprietors be kings, and despotic kings — kings in proportion to their facultes bonitaires? DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
And if each proprietor is sovereign lord within the sphere of his property, absolute king throughout his own domain, how could a government of proprietors be any thing but chaos and confusion? HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
Proudhon contrasted the supposed right of property with the rights (which he considered valid) of liberty, equality, and security, saying: "The liberty and security of the rich do not suffer from the liberty and security of the poor; HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
far from that, they mutually strengthen and sustain each other. The rich man’s right of property, on the contrary, has to be continually defended against the poor man’s desire for property." He further argued that the right of property contradicted these other rights: HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
"Then if we are associated for the sake of liberty, equality, and security, we are not associated for the sake of property; then if property is a natural right, this natural right is not social, but anti-social. Property and society are utterly irreconcilable institutions." HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Though Proudhon rejects the right of property per se, he also argues that the state of possession as it is (or was) could not be justified even by supposing this right. Here he feigns to bring a legal claim against society, in a style mocking legal rhetoric: Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E125 laptop keyboard
In writing this memoir against property, I bring against universal society an action petitoire [a legal claim to title]: I prove that those who do not possess to-day are proprietors by the same title as those who do possess; but, instead of inferring therefrom that property should be shared by all, I demand, in the name of general security, SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
its entire abolition. If I fail to win my case, there is nothing left for us (the proletarian class and myself) but to cut our throats: we can ask nothing more from the justice of nations; for, as the code of procedure (art 26) HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
tells us in its energetic style, the plaintiff who has been non-suited in an action petitoire, is debarred thereby from bringing an action possessoire. If, on the contrary, I gain the case, we must then commence an action possessoire, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
[a legal repossession] that we may be reinstated in the enjoyment of the wealth of which we are deprived by property. I hope that we shall not be forced to that extremity; but these two actions cannot be prosecuted at once, such a course being prohibited by the same code of procedure.
—Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Property? (emphasis added) HP G42-475TU laptop keyboard
Proudhon claims that his treatise "shall prove beyond a doubt that property, to be just and possible, must necessarily have equality for its condition." He used the term mutuellisme (mutualism) to describe his vision of an economy in which individuals and democratic workers associations could trade their produce on the market under the constraint of equality. DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
A workers' council is a form of political and economic organization in which a single place of work or enterprise, such as a factory, school, or farm, is controlled collectively by the workers of that workplace, through the core principle of temporary and instantly revocable delegates. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
In a system with temporary and instantly revocable delegates, workers decided on what their agenda is and what their needs are. They also mandate a temporary delegate to divulge and pursue them. The temporary delegates are elected among the workers themselves, can be instantly revoked if they betray their mandate, HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
and are supposed to change frequently. There are no managers and all decision power and organization is based on the delegates system.
On a larger scale, a group of delegates may in turn elect a delegate in a higher position to pursue their mandate, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
and so on, until the top delegates are running the industrial system of a state. In such a system decision power rises from bottom to top from the agendas of the workers themselves, and there is not a decision imposition from the top, as would happen in the case of a power seizure by a bureaucratic layer who are immune to instant revocation. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
Several times in modern history the idea of workers' councils has been attributed to similar forms of organization, although in most cases the workers didn't actually have full power control, and were subdued to some external authority. Examples include Russia in 1905 and 1917, where councils were called "soviets";[1] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard
during 1918 (Räte); Turin,Italy during 1919–1920; rural Ireland during 1920–1921; China during 1926–1927; Spain during 1936; Hungary during 1919and 1956; France during 1871 and 1968; Chile in 1973 (cordones); Iran during 1978–1979 (shoras[2]). HP 403809-001 Laptop Keyboard
Despite Lenin's declarations that "the workers must demand the immediate establishment of genuine control, to be exercised by the workers themselves", on May 30, the Menshevik minister of labor, Skobolev, pledged to not give the control of industry to the workers but instead to the state: DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
"The transfer of enterprises into the hands of the people will not at the present time assist the revolution [...] The regulation and control of industry is not a matter for a particular class. It is a task for the state. Upon the individual class, especially the working class, lies the responsibility for helping the state in its organizational work."[3][4] TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
In the workers' councils organised as part of the German revolution, factory organisations, such as the General Workers' Union of Germany (AAUD), formed the basis for organising region-wide councils. The council communists in the Communist Workers' Party of Germany advocated organising "on the basis of places of work, not trades, and to establish a National Federation of Works Committees."[5] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Councils operate on the principle of recallable delegates. This means that elected delegates may be recalled at any time through a vote in a form of impeachment. Recall of management committee members, specialist professionals such as engineers, and delegates to higher councils was observed in the Central Workers Council of Greater Budapest during 1956, where delegates were removed for industrial, organisational and political reasons. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
Workers' councils combine to elect higher bodies for coordinating between one another. This means that the upper councils are not superior to the lower councils, but are instead built from and operated by them. The national council would therefore have delegates from every city in the country. Their nature means that workers'DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
councils do away with traditional centralized governments and instead give power indirectly to the people. This type of democratic order is called council democracy. The Central Workers Council of Greater Budapest occupied this role in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, between late October and early January 1957, where it grew out of local factory committees. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
A workers' council is a deliberative assembly, composed of working class members, intended to institute workers' self-management or workers' control. Unlike a trade union, in a workers' council the workers are assumed to be in actual control of the workplace, rather than merely negotiating with employers through collective bargaining. They are a form ofworkplace democracy. ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Laptop Keyboard
Many Marxists and most anarchists believe that workers' councils embody the fundamental principles of socialism, such as workers' control over production and distribution. Indeed, some have described this as "socialism from below," which they counterpose against what they see as "socialism from above" endorsed by Stalinism and Maoism. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
· According to this view, socialism from above is carried out by a centralized state run by an elite bureaucratic apparatus, whereas socialism from below represents the self-administration and self-rule of the working class. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Some left communists (particularly council communists) and anarchists support a council-based society; believing that only the workers themselves can spark a revolution and so workers' councils will be the foundation of the revolution. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
There are also Leninists (for example the International Socialist Tendency and its offshoots) who advocate a council-based society,[6] but maintain that workers' councils cannot carry out a revolution without the leadership of a vanguard party.[7] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
During May 1968 ( "The largest general strike that ever stopped the economy of an advanced industrial country, and the first wildcat general strike in history" ), the Situationists, against the unions and the Communist Party that were starting to side with the de Gaulle government to contain the revolt, called for the formation of workers' councils to take control of the factories, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
expelling union leaders and left-wing bureaucrats, in order to keep the power in the hands of the workers with direct democracy.[8]
Capitalism is an economic system in which trade, industry and the means of production are controlled by private owners with the goal of making profits in a market economy.[1][2] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets and wage labor.[3] In a capitalist economy, the parties to a transaction typically determine the prices at which assets, goods, and services are exchanged.[4] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
The degree of competition, role of intervention and regulation, and scope of public ownership varies across different models of capitalism.[5] Economists, political economists, and historians have taken different perspectives in their analysis of capitalism and recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire capitalism, SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
welfare capitalism and state capitalism; each highlighting varying degrees of dependency on markets, public ownership, and inclusion of social policies. The extent to which different markets are free, as well as the rules defining private property, is a matter of politics and policy. Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
Many states have what are termed capitalist mixed economies, referring to a mix between planned and market-driven elements.[6] Crony capitalism, is a state of affairs in which insider corruption, nepotism and cartels dominate the system. In Marxian economics this is considered to be the normal state of mature capitalism, while in anarcho-capitalist theory it is considered a political distortion of capital and markets.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in many different times, places, and cultures.[8] Following the demise of feudalism, capitalism became the dominant economic system in the Western world. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
Later, in the 20th century, capitalism overcame a challenge by centrally-planned economies and is now the dominant system worldwide,[9][10] with themixed economy being its dominant form in the industrialized Western world. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
Different economic perspectives emphasize specific elements of capitalism in their preferred definition. Laissez-faireand liberal economists emphasize the degree to which government does not have control over markets and the importance ofproperty rights.[11][12] HP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
Neoclassical and Keynesian macro-economists emphasize the need for government regulation to prevent monopolies and to soften the effects of the boom and bust cycle.[13] Marxian economists emphasize the role of capital accumulation, exploitation and wage labor. Most political economists emphasize private property as well, in addition to power relations, wage labor, class, and the uniqueness of capitalism as a historical formation.[6]
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[14] Critics of capitalism variously associate it with economic instability[15] and an inability to provide for the well-being of all people.[16] In contrast to both perspectives, socialists maintain that capitalism is superior to all previously existing economic systems (such as feudalism or HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
slavery) but that the contradiction between class interests will only be resolved by advancing into a completely social system of production and distribution in which all persons have an equal relationship to the means of production.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
The term capitalism, in its modern sense, is often attributed to Karl Marx.[8][18] In his magnum opus Capital, Marx wrote of the "capitalist mode of production" using a method of understanding today known as Marxism. ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
However, while Marx rarely used the term "capitalism", it was used twice in the more political interpretations of his work, primarily authored by his collaborator Friedrich Engels. In the 20th century defenders of the capitalist system often replaced the termcapitalism with phrases such as free enterprise and private enterprise and replaced capitalist with rentier and investorin reaction to the negative connotations associated with capitalism.[19] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
The economic foundations of the feudal agricultural system began to shift substantially in 16th century England; themanorial system had broken down by this time, and land began to be concentrated in the hands of fewer landlords with increasingly large estates. Instead of a serf-based system of labor, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
workers were increasingly being employed as part of a broader and expanding money economy. The system put pressure on both the landlords and the tenants to increase the productivity of the agriculture to make profit; DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
the weakened coercive power of the aristocracy to extract peasantsurpluses encouraged them to try out better methods, and the tenants also had incentive to improve their methods, in order to flourish in an increasingly competitive labor market. Terms of rent for the land were becoming subject to economic market forces rather than the previous stagnant system of custom and feudal obligation. [21] HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
By the early 17th-century, England was a centralized state, in which much of the feudal order of Medieval Europe had been swept away. This centralization was strengthened by a good system of roads and a disproportionately large capital city,London. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
The capital acted as a central market hub for the entire country, creating a very large internal market for goods, instead of the fragmented feudal holdings that prevailed in most parts of the Continent. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730F laptop keyboard
The economic doctrine that held sway between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries is commonly described asmercantilism.[22] This period, the Age of Discovery, was associated with the geographic exploration of foreign lands by merchant traders, especially from England and the Low Countries. Mercantilism was a system of trade for profit, although commodities wHP Pavilion DV7-3112tx laptop keyboard
ere still largely produced by non-capitalist production methods.[8] Most scholars consider the era of merchant capitalism and mercantilism as the origin of modern capitalism,[23][24] although Karl Polanyi argued that the hallmark of capitalism is the establishment of generalized markets for what he referred to as the "fictitious commodities": TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5107 laptop keyboard
land, labor, and money. Accordingly, he argued that "not until 1834 was a competitive labor market established in England, hence industrial capitalism as a social system cannot be said to have existed before that date."[25] GATEWAY P-6825 laptop keyboard
England began a large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era (1558–1603). A systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun's argument England's Treasure by Forraign Trade, or the Balance of our Forraign Trade is The Rule of Our Treasure. It was written in the 1620s and published in 1664.[26] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Among the major tenets of mercantilist theory was bullionism, a doctrine stressing the importance of accumulating precious metals. Mercantilists argued that a state should export more goods than it imported so that foreigners would have to pay the difference in precious metals. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Mercantilists argued that only raw materials that could not be extracted at home should be imported; and promoted government subsidies, such as the granting of monopolies and protective tariffs, which mercantilists thought were necessary to encourage home production of manufactured goods. Sugataro Yabuki was the second son born to Kunizo SONY VAIO VGN-AR770 laptop keyboard
and Kichi Yabuki in 1859 in the Hadeki district of what would later become Japan's Okayama prefecture. He was adopted by the Katayama family at nineteen and adopted the name Sen Katayama, becoming the Katayama's "first son," after his birth mother was deserted by her husband. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
The adoption avoided Katayama's conscription and allowed him to continue his education. In his autobiography, Jiden (自伝), Katayama admitted that he was fortunate not to have been the first born in his birth family, as it saved him from some of the responsibilities that burdened some of his acquaintances. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
In 1878 Katayama travelled to Tokyo to apprentice as a printer while he studied at a small preparatory school, the Oka Juku, where he formed a friendship with Iwasaki Seikichi (岩崎 清吉), nephew of one of the founders of Mitsubishi. Iwasaki's departure for Yale University inspired Katayama to work his way to the United States. Katayama attended Grinnell College, GATEWAY NX570X laptop keyboard
from which he graduated in 1892, proceeding to the Andover Theological Seminary and then to Yale Divinity School. During this period Katayama became a Christian and a socialist. Before attending Grinnell, Katayama attended Maryville College. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Katayama returned to Japan in 1896 and from 1897 to 1901 edited Labour World (労働世界), the organ of the Iron Workers' Union (鉄工組合)and Trade Unions' Federation (労働組合期成会)and Japan's first socialist party. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
He returned to America in 1903 at the urging of Iwasaki to look into rice-farming opportunities. During this trip he attended the Second International Socialist Congress in Amsterdam where he gained recognition for shaking hands with the Russian delegate, G.V. Plekhanov, in a gesture of amity between the Russian and Japanese peoples, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
despite the ongoing Russo-Japanese War. In 1904 he attended an American Socialist Party convention in Chicago. He settled in Texas and his main business became rice farming. When his rice crop failed he became employed by a Japanese restaurant owner in Houston, HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
Tsunekichi Okasaki, who bought 10,202 acres (41.29 km2) of land in Texas with the plan that Katayama farm it. In late 1905 Okasaki and Katayama borrowed $100,000 from Iwasaki to fund the rice harvest, and together they formed a "Nippon Kono Kabushiki Kaisha" (Japan Farming Company) to develop the Texas project, SONY VAIO VGN-CR31S Laptop Keyboard
and Katayama was made managing director. However, the company quickly dissolved, reputedly over Katayama's socialist leanings, and he returned to Japan in 1907, rejoined the Socialist movement, and pursued a career in journalism. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S Laptop Keyboard
Katayama was arrested and jailed for his participation in the Tokyo Streetcar Strike of 1912, and after his release he left Japan for California. Attracted by the success of the Bolshevik revolution of 1917-18, SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Katayama became an active communist and an officer for Comintern. He travelled to Mexico and later to Moscow, where he was hailed as a leader of the Japanese Communist movement. He remained in the Soviet Union until his death on November 5, 1933 and was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
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Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (French: [pjɛʁ ʒɔzɛf pʁudɔ̃]) (15 January 1809 – 19 January 1865) was a French politician, the founder of Mutualist philosophy, an economist and a libertarian socialist. He was the first person to declare himself an anarchist [1] and is among its most influential theorists. COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard
He is considered by many to be the "father of anarchism".[2] He became a member of the French Parliament after the revolution of 1848, whereupon and thereafter he referred to himself as a federalist.[3] SONY VAIO VGN-NW18H/T laptop keyboard
Proudhon, who was born in Besançon, was a printer who taught himself Latin in order to better print books in the language. His best-known assertion is that Property is Theft!, contained in his first major work, What is Property? Or, HP Pavilion dv6-2090eg laptop keyboard
an Inquiry into the Principle of Right and Government (Qu'est-ce que la propriété? Recherche sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement), published in 1840. The book's publication attracted the attention of the French authorities. Compaq Presario CQ56-129NR laptop keyboard
It also attracted the scrutiny of Karl Marx, who started a correspondence with its author. The two influenced each other: they met in Paris while Marx was exiled there. Their friendship finally ended when Marx responded to Proudhon's The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty with the provocatively titled The Poverty of Philosophy. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
The dispute became one of the sources of the split between the anarchist andMarxian wings of the International Working Men's Association. Some, such as Edmund Wilson, have contended that Marx's attack on Proudhon had its origin in the latter's defense of Karl Grün, whom Marx bitterly disliked, but who had been preparing translations of Proudhon's work. ACER NSK-H3M1D laptop keyboard
Proudhon favored workers' associations or co-operatives, as well as individual worker/peasant possession, over private ownership or the nationalization of land and workplaces. He considered social revolution to be achievable in a peaceful manner. In The Confessions of a Revolutionary Proudhon asserted that, SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard
Anarchy is Order Without Power, the phrase which much later inspired, in the view of some, the anarchist circled-A symbol, today "one of the most common graffiti on the urban landscape."[4] He unsuccessfully tried to create a national bank, to be funded by what became an abortive attempt at an income tax on capitalists and shareholders. Similar in some respects to a credit union, it would have given interest-free loans.[5] DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
Proudhon was born in Besançon, France on February 15, 1809, at 37 Rue du Petit Battant in the suburb of Battant.[6] His father, Claude-François Proudhon who worked as a brewer and a cooper,[7] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
was originally from the village of Chasnans, near the border with Switzerland. His mother, Catherine Simonin was from Cordiron.[6] Claude-François and Catherine had five boys together, two of whom died at a very young age. Proudhon's brothers Jean-Etienne and Claude were born in 1811 and 1816, respectively, Packard Bell PEW76 laptop keyboard
and both maintained a very close relationship with Proudhon.[7]
As a boy, he mostly worked in the family tavern, helped with basic agricultural work, and spent time playing outdoors in the countryside. Proudhon received no formal education as a child, but was taught to read by his mother, who had him spelling words by age three. However, until he was 10, the only books that he was exposed to were 'the Gospels and theFour Aymon Brothers', HP 405963-001 laptop keyboard
and some local almanacs. In 1820, Proudhon's mother began trying to get him admitted into the city college in Besançon. The family was far too poor to afford the tuition, but with the help of one of Claude-François' former employers, she managed to gain a bursary which deducted 120 francs a year from the cost. SONY VAIO PCG-FR55/B laptop keyboard
Proudhon was unable to afford books (or even shoes) to attend school, which caused him great difficulties, and often made him the object of scorn by his wealthier classmates. In spite of this, Proudhon showed a strong will to learn, and spent much time in the school library with a pile of books, exploring a variety of subjects in his free time outside of class.[8] TOSHIBA Satellite A305-S6841 laptop keyboard
In 1827 Proudhon began an apprenticeship at a printing press in the house of Bellevaux, in Battant; on Easter of the following year, he transferred to a press in Besançon owned by the family of one of his schoolmates, Antoine Gauthier.[9] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx laptop keyboard
Besançon was an important center of religious thought at the time, and most of the works published at Gauthier wereecclesiastical works. Proudhon, during the course of his work, spent hours every day reading this Christian literature and began to question many of his long held religious beliefs which eventually led him to reject Christianity altogether.[10] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Over the years, Proudhon rose to be a corrector for the press, proofreading their publications. By 1829, he began to become more interested in social issues than religious theory. Of particular importance during this period was his encounter with Charles Fourier, who in 1829 came to Gauthier as a customer seeking to publish his work Le Nouveau Monde Industriel et Sociétaire. HP 633736-001 laptop keyboard
Proudhon supervised the printing of the book, which gave him ample opportunity to talk with Fourier about a variety of social and philosophical issues. These discussions left a strong impression on Proudhon, and influenced him throughout his life.[11] It was also during this time that Proudhon formed one of his closest friendships, SONY VGN-FE28B laptop keyboard
with Gustave Fallot, a scholar from Montebéliard who came from a family of wealthy French industrialists. Impressed by Proudhon's corrections of one of his Latin manuscripts, Fallot sought out his friendship, ACER TravelMate 3232WXMi Laptop Keyboard
and the two were soon regularly spending their evenings together discussing French literature by Montaigne, Rabelais, Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, and many other authors to whom Proudhon had not been exposed during his years of theological readings.[12] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
In September 1830, Proudhon became certified as a journeyman compositor. The period following this was marked by unemployment and poverty, with Proudhon travelling around France (and also, briefly, to Neufchâtel, Switzerland) where he unsuccessfully sought stable employment in printing and as a schoolteacher.[13] HP 530580-001 laptop keyboard
During this period, Fallot offered financial assistance to Proudhon if he came to Paris to study philosophy. Proudhon accepted his offer, despite concerns about how it might disrupt his career in the printing trade.[14] He walked from Besançon to Paris, arriving in March at the Rue Mazarin, in the Latin Quarter, where Fallot was living at the time. DELL NSK-DD101 laptop keyboard
Proudhon began mingling amongst the circle of metropolitan scholars surrounding Fallot, but felt out of place and uncomfortable amidst people who were both wealthier, and more accustomed to scholarly debate. Ultimately, Proudhon found that he preferred to spend the majority of his time, studying alone, and was not fond of urban life, DELL Studio 1735 laptop keyboard
longing to return home to Besançon.[15] The cholera outbreak in Paris granted him his wish to return home, when Fallot was struck with the illness, making him unable to financially support Proudhon any longer. After Proudhon left, he never saw Fallot (who died in 1836) again.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
However, this friendship was one of the most important events in Proudhon's life, as it is what motivated him to leave the printing trade, and pursue his studies of philosophy instead.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-FS640/W laptop keyboard
In 1838, after an unsuccessful printing business venture, Proudhon decided to dedicate himself fully to scholarly pursuits. He applied for the Suard Pension, a bursary that would enable him to study at the Academy of Besançon. Proudhon was selected out of several candidates, primarily due to the fact that his income was much lower than the others, HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
and the judges were extremely impressed by his writing, and the level of education he had given himself while working as an artisan. Proudhon arrived in Paris towards the end of autumn in 1838.[18] SONY VAIO VGN-FS640/W laptop keyboard
In 1839 the Academy of Besançon held an essay competition on the subject of 'the utility of the celebration of Sunday in regard to hygiene, morality, and the relationship of the family and the city'. Proudhon's entry, titled De la Célébration du dimanche, SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
essentially used the essay subject as a pretext for discussing a variety of political and philosophical ideas, and in it one can find the seeds of his later revolutionary ideas. Many of his ideas on authority, morality, HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
and property disturbed the essay judges at the Academy, and Proudhon was only awarded the bronze medal (something in which Proudhon took pride, because he felt that this was an indicator that his writing made elite academics uncomfortable).[19] HP AE0P7U00010 laptop keyboard
In 1840 he published his first work Qu'est-ce que la propriété (or "What Is Property").[citation needed]
His third memoir on property was a letter to the Fourierist, M. Considérant; he was tried for it at Besançon but was acquitted. In 1846, he published theSystème des contradictions économiques ou Philosophie de la misère (or "The System of Economic Contradictions, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
or The Philosophy of Poverty"). For some time, Proudhon ran a small printing establishment at Besançon, but without success; afterwards he became connected as a kind of manager with a commercial firm in Lyon, France. In 1847, he left this job and finally settled in Paris, where he was now becoming celebrated as a leader of innovation. In this year he also became a Freemason.[20] HP G62-b21SL laptop keyboard
Proudhon was surprised by the Revolutions of 1848 in France. He participated in the February uprising and the composition of what he termed "the first republican proclamation" of the new republic. But he had misgivings about the new provisional government, headed by Dupont de l'Eure (1767–1855), who, since theFrench Revolution in 1789, ASUS A8H laptop keyboard
had been a longstanding politician, although often in the opposition. Beside Dupont de l'Eure, the provisional government was dominated by liberals such as Lamartine (Foreign Affairs),Ledru-Rollin (Interior), Crémieux (Justice), Burdeau (War), Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard
etc., because it was pursuing political reform at the expense of the socio-economic reform, which Proudhon considered basic. As during the 1830 July Revolution, the Republican-Socialist Party had set up a counter-government in the Hotel de Ville, includingLouis Blanc, Armand Marrast, Ferdinand Flocon, and workman Albert. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Proudhon published his own perspective for reform which was completed in 1849, Solution du problème social("Solution of the Social Problem"), in which he laid out a program of mutual financial cooperation among workers. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
He believed this would transfer control of economic relations from capitalists and financiers to workers. The central part of his plan was the establishment of a bank to provide credit at a very low rate of interest and the issuing of exchange notes that would circulate instead of money based on gold. HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard
During the Second French Republic (1848–1852), Proudhon had his biggest public effect through journalism. He got involved with four newspapers: Le Représentant du Peuple (February 1848 – August 1848); Le Peuple (September 1848 – June 1849); La Voix du Peuple(September 1849 –DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
May 1850); Le Peuple de 1850 (June 1850 – October 1850). His polemical writing style, combined with his perception of himself as a political outsider, produced a cynical, combative journalism that appealed to many French workers but alienated others. DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard
He repeatedly criticised the government's policies and promoted reformation of credit and exchange. He tried to establish a popular bank (Banque du peuple) early in 1849, but despite over 13,000 people signing up (mostly workers), receipts were limited falling short of 18,000FF and the whole enterprise was essentially stillborn.[clarification needed] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon ran for the constituent assembly in April 1848, but was not elected, although his name appeared on the ballots in Paris, Lyon, Besançon, and Lille, France. He was successful, in the complementary elections of June 4, and served as a deputy during the debates over the National Workshops, created by the February 25, COMPAQ Presario CQ50-215CA Laptop Keyboard
1848, decree passed by Republican Louis Blanc. The workshops were to give work to the unemployed. Proudhon was never enthusiastic about such workshops, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
perceiving them to be essentially charitable institutions that did not resolve the problems of the economic system. He was against their elimination unless an alternative could be found for the workers who relied on the workshops for subsistence. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
In 1848 the closing of the National Workshops provoked the June Days Uprising and the violence shocked Proudhon. Visiting the barricades personally, he later reflected that his presence at the Bastille at this time was "one of the most honorable acts of my life". TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard
But in general during the tumultuous events of 1848, Proudhon opposed insurrection by preaching peaceful conciliation, a stance that was in accord with his lifelong stance against violence. He disapproved of the revolts and demonstrations of February, May, and June 1848, though sympathetic to the social and psychological injustices that the insurrectionists had been forced to endure. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
To be GOVERNED is to be watched, inspected, spied upon, directed, law-driven, numbered, regulated, enrolled, indoctrinated, preached at, controlled, checked, estimated, valued, censured, commanded, by creatures who have neither the right nor the wisdom nor the virtue to do so. To be GOVERNED is to be at every operation, GATEWAY V030946FS1 US Laptop Keyboard
at every transaction noted, registered, counted, taxed, stamped, measured, numbered, assessed, licensed, authorized, admonished, prevented, forbidden, reformed, corrected, punished. It is, under pretext of public utility, HP 496878-001 Laptop Keyboard
and in the name of the general interest, to be place[d] under contribution, drilled, fleeced, exploited, monopolized, extorted from, squeezed, hoaxed, robbed; then, at the slightest resistance, the first word of complaint, to be repressed, fined, vilified, harassed, hunted down, abused, clubbed, disarmed, bound, SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard
choked, imprisoned, judged, condemned, shot, deported, sacrificed, sold, betrayed; and to crown all, mocked, ridiculed, derided, outraged, dishonored. That is government; that is its justice; that is its morality.[25] HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon in his earliest works analyzed the nature and problems of the capitalist economy. While deeply critical of capitalism, he also objected to those contemporary socialists who advocated centralized, hierarchical forms of association or state control of the economy. In a sequence of commentaries, fromWhat is Property? (1840), HP Pavilion G6-1B67CL laptop keyboard
posthumously published in the Théorie de la propriété (Theory of Property, 1863–64), he declared in turn that "property is theft", "property is impossible", "property is despotism", and "property is freedom". When he said "property is theft", DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
he was referring to the landowner or capitalist who he believed "stole" the profits from laborers. For Proudhon, the capitalist's employee was "subordinated, exploited: his permanent condition is one of obedience".[27] GATEWAY M600 laptop keyboard
In asserting that property is freedom, he was referring not only to the product of an individual's labor, but to the peasant or artisan's home and tools of his trade and the income he received by selling his goods. For Proudhon, the only legitimate source of property is labor. ACER KB.TNT07.002 laptop keyboard
What one produces is one's property and anything beyond that is not. He advocated worker self-management and was opposed to the private ownership of the means of production. As he put it in 1848: HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Under the law of association, transmission of wealth does not apply to the instruments of labour, so cannot become a cause of inequality... We are socialists... under universal association, ownership of the land and of the instruments of labour is social ownership... We want the mines, canals, railways handed over to democratically organised workers' associations... HP 6730S laptop keyboard
We want these associations to be models for agriculture, industry and trade, the pioneering core of that vast federation of companies and societies, joined together in the common bond of the democratic and social Republic.[28] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon called himself a socialist, but he opposed state ownership of capital goods in favour of ownership by workers themselves in associations. This makes him one of the first theorists of libertarian socialism. Proudhon was one of the main influences on the theory of workers' self-management(autogestion), in the late 19th and 20th century. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon strenuously rejected the ownership of the products of labor by society or the state, arguing in What is Property? that while "property in product [...] does not carry with it property in the means of production"[29] [...]HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard
The right to product is exclusive [...] the right to means is common" and applied this to the land ("the land is [...] a common thing"[30]) and workplaces ("all accumulated capital being social property, no one can be its exclusive proprietor".[31]) FUJITSU Lifebook T4215 Laptop Keyboard
He argued that while society owned the means of production or land, users would control and run them (under supervision from society), with the "organising of regulating societies" in order to "regulate the market".[32] SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
This use-ownership he called "possession", and this economic system mutualism. Proudhon had many arguments against entitlement to land and capital, including reasons based on morality, economics, politics, and individual liberty. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
One such argument was that it enabled profit, which in turn led to social instability and war by creating cycles of debt that eventually overcame the capacity of labor to pay them off. Another was that it produced "despotism" and turned workers into wage workers subject to the authority of a boss. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
In What Is Property? Proudhon wrote:
Property, acting by exclusion and encroachment, while population was increasing, has been the life-principle and definitive cause of all revolutions. Religious wars, and wars of conquest, when they have stopped short of the extermination of races, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard
have been only accidental disturbances, soon repaired by the mathematical progression of the life of nations. The downfall and death of societies are due to the power of accumulation possessed by property. ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard
Towards the end of his life, Proudhon modified some of his earlier views. In The Principle of Federation (1863) he modified his earlier anti-state position, arguing for "the balancing of authority by liberty" and put forward a decentralised "theory of federal government".HP Pavilion dv3-2355ee Laptop Keyboard
He also defined anarchy differently as "the government of each by himself", which meant "that political functions have been reduced to industrial functions, and that social order arises from nothing but transactions and exchanges." This work also saw him call his economic system an "agro-industrial federation", HP Pavilion dv4-1220us Laptop Keyboard
arguing that it would provide "specific federal arrangements is to protect the citizens of the federated states from capitalist and financial feudalism, both within them and from the outside" and so stop the re-introduction of "wage labour." This was because "political right requires to be buttressed by economic right." COMPAQ Presario CQ50-104CA Laptop Keyboard
In the posthumously published Theory of Property, he argued that "property is the only power that can act as a counterweight to the State." Hence, "Proudhon could retain the idea of property as theft, and at the same time offer a new definition of it as liberty. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
There is the constant possibility of abuse, exploitation, which spells theft. At the same time property is a spontaneous creation of society and a bulwark against the ever-encroaching power of the State."[33] HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard
He continued to oppose both capitalist and state property. In Theory of Property he maintains: "Now in 1840, I categorically rejected the notion of property...for both the group and the individual", but then states his new theory of property: "SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
property is the greatest revolutionary force which exists, with an unequaled capacity for setting itself against authority..." and the "principal function of private property within the political system will be to act as a counterweight to the power of the State, and by so doing to insure the liberty of the individual." TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard
However, he continued to oppose concentrations of wealth and property, arguing for small-scale property ownership associated with peasants and artisans. He still opposed private property in land: "What I cannot accept, regarding land, is that the work put in gives a right to ownership of what has been worked on." In addition, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
he still believed that that "property" should be more equally distributed and limited in size to that actually used by individuals, families and workers associations.[34] He supported the right of inheritance, and defended "as one of the foundations of the family and society."[35] HP Mini 210-1080NR Laptop Keyboard
However, he refused to extend this beyond personal possessions arguing that "[u]nder the law of association, transmission of wealth does not apply to the instruments of labour."[36]
As a consequence of his opposition to profit, wage labour, worker exploitation, ownership of land and capital, as well as to state property, Proudhon rejected both capitalism and communism. ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
He adopted the term mutualism for his brand of anarchism, which involved control of the means of production by the workers. In his vision, self-employed artisans, peasants, and cooperatives would trade their products on the market. For Proudhon, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
factories and other large workplaces would be run by "labor associations" operating on directly democratic principles. The state would be abolished; instead, society would be organized by a federation of "free communes" HP Pavilion dv6-3090ca Laptop Keyboard
a commune is a local municipality in French). In 1863 Proudhon said: "All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can be summed up in the words: agricultural-industrial federation. All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization."[37] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon opposed the charging of interest and rent, but did not seek to abolish them by law: "I protest that when I criticized... the complex of institutions of which property is the foundation stone, SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W Laptop Keyboard
I never meant to forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I think that all these manifestations of human activity should remain free and voluntary for all: I ask for them no modifications, restrictions or suppressions, other than those which result naturally and of necessity from the universalization of the principle of reciprocity which I propose."[38] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
He made few public criticisms of Marx or Marxism, because in his lifetime Marx was a relatively minor thinker; it was only after Proudhon's death that Marxism became a large movement. He did, however, criticize authoritarian socialists of his period. HP 367778-001 Laptop Keyboard
This included the state socialist Louis Blanc, of whom Proudhon said, "Let me say to M. Blanc: you desire neither Catholicism nor monarchy nor nobility, but you must have a God, a religion, a dictatorship, a censorship, a hierarchy, TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2812 Laptop Keyboard
distinctions, and ranks. For my part, I deny your God, your authority, your sovereignty, your judicial State, and all your representative mystifications." It was Proudhon's book What is Property? that convinced the young Karl Marx that private property should be abolished. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
In one of his first works, The Holy Family, Marx said, "Not only does Proudhon write in the interest of the proletarians, he is himself a proletarian, an ouvrier. His work is a scientific manifesto of the French proletariat." Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Marx, however, disagreed with Proudhon's anarchism and later published vicious criticisms of Proudhon. Marx wrote The Poverty of Philosophy as a refutation of Proudhon's The Philosophy of Poverty. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon opposed militarism, dictatorship, and war, arguing that the "end of militarism is the mission of the nineteenth century, under pain of indefinite decadence"[39] and that the "workers alone are capable of putting an end to war by creating economic equilibrium. This presupposes a radical revolution in ideas and morals."[40] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
As Robert L. Hoffman notes that War and Peace “ends by condemning war without reservation” and its “conclusion [is] that war is obsolete.”[41]Marxist philosopher John Ehrenberg summarized Proudhon's position: ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard
If injustice was the cause of war, it followed that conflict could not be eliminated until society was reorganised along egalitarian lines. Proudhon had wanted to prove that the reign of political economy would be the reign of peace, finding it difficult to believe that people really thought he was defending militarism. – Proudhon and His Age, p. 145HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon argued that under mutualism "[t]here will no longer be nationality, no longer fatherland, in the political sense of the words: they will mean only places of birth. Man, of whatever race or colour he may be, is an inhabitant of the universe; citizenship is everywhere an acquired right."[42] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon also rejected dictatorship, stating in the 1860s that "what I will always be . . . a republican, a democrat even, and a socialist into the bargain."[43] Henri de Lubac argued that, in terms of Proudhon’s critique of democracy, "SONY KFRMBA221A Laptop Keyboard
we must not allow all this to hoodwink us. His invectives against democracy were not those of a counter-revolutionary. They were aimed at what he himself called 'the false democracy'...They attacked an apparently liberal 'pseudo-democracy' which 'was not economic and social' . . . 'DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
a Jacobinical democracy'" Proudhon "did not want to destroy, but complete, the work of 1789" and while "he had a grudge against the 'old democracy', the democracy of Robespierre and Marat" he repeatedly contrasted it "with a 'young democracy', which was a ‘social democracy.'"[44] SONY VAIO VGN-FZ210CE laptop keyboard
According to historian of anarchism George Woodcock, some positions Proudhon took "sorted oddly with his avowed anarchism". Woodcock cited for example Proudhon's proposition that each citizen perform one or two years militia service.[45] The proposal appeared in the Programme Revolutionaire, ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
an electoral manifesto issued by Proudhon after he was asked to run for a position in the provisional government. The text reads: "7° 'L'armée. – Abolition immédiate de la conscription et des remplacements; obligation pour tout citoyen de faire, pendant un ou deux ans, le service militaire ; application de l'armée aux services administratifs ACER Aspire 5810TZ-4657 laptop keyboard
et travaux d'utilité publique." ("Military service by all citizens is proposed as an alternative to conscription and the practice of "replacement", by which those who could avoided such service.") However, in the same document, Proudhon described the "form of government" he was proposing as "a centralization analogous with that of the State, but in which no one obeys, no one is dependent, and everyone is free and sovereign."[46] ACER Aspire AS5335-2257 laptop keyboard
In addition to being considered a founding father of anarchism some of his ideas were adopted by national socialist parties.[47] He was first used as a reference in the Cercle Proudhon, a right-wing association formed in 1911 by George Valois and Edouard Berth. Both had been brought together by thesyndicalist ACER TravelMate 8215WLMi laptop keyboard
Georges Sorel. But they would tend toward a synthesis of socialism and nationalism, mixing Proudhon's mutualism with Charles Maurras'integralist nationalism. In 1925, George Valois founded the Faisceau, the first fascist league which took its name from Mussolini's fasci. Historian offascism, in particular of French fascists, Zeev Sternhell, has noted this use of Proudhon by the far-right. In The Birth Of Fascist Ideology, he states that: Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard
the Action Française...from its inception regarded the author of La philosophie de la misère as one of its masters.[48] He was given a place of honour in the weekly section of the journal of the movement entitled, precisely, 'Our Masters.' Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Proudhon owed this place in L'Action française to what the Maurrassians saw as his antirepublicanism, his anti-Semitism, his loathing of Rousseau, his disdain for the French Revolution,democracy, and parliamentarianism: and his championship of the nation, the family, tradition, and the monarchy. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
K. Steven Vincent, however, states that "to argue that Proudhon was a proto-fascist suggests that one has never looked seriously at Proudhon’s writings."[49]
J. Salwyn Schapiro argued in 1945 that Proudhon was a racist, "a glorifier of war for its own sake" and his "advocacy of personal dictatorship and his laudation of militarism can hardly be equalled in the reactionary writings of his or of our day."[50] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Other scholars have rejected Schapiro's claims. Graham Purchase states that while Proudhon was personally racist, "anti-semitism formed no part of Proudhon’s revolutionary programme."[51]
Albert Meltzer has said that though Proudhon used the term "anarchist", he was not one, and that he never engaged in "anarchist activity or struggle" but rather in "parliamentary activity".[52] ASUS X53S laptop keyboard
Proudhon also engaged in a series of published letters, between 1849 and 1850, with Frédéric Bastiat discussing the legitimacy of interest.[53] As Robert Leroux argued, Bastiat had the conviction that Proudhon's doctrine "was the complete antithesis of any serious approach".[citation needed] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Anti-semitism and sexism
Stewart Edwards, the editor of the Selected Writings Of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, remarks: "Proudhon's diaries (Carnets, ed. P. Haubtmann, Marcel Rivière, Paris 1960 to date) reveal that he had almost paranoid feelings of hatred against the Jews, common in Europe at the time. In 1847 he considered publishing an article against the Jewish race, SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
which he said he "hated". The proposed article would have "called for the expulsion of the Jews from France... The Jew is the enemy of the human race. This race must be sent back to Asia, or exterminated. H. Heine, A. Weil, and others are simply secret spies. Rothschild,Crémieux, Marx, Fould, evil choleric, envious, bitter men etc., etc., who hate us." (Carnets, vol. 2, p. 337: No VI, 178)[54] HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 laptop keyboard
In his diary, dated December 26, 1847, it states: Jews. Write an article against this race that poisons everything by sticking its nose into everything without ever mixing with any other people. Demand its expulsion from France with the exception of those individuals married to French women. HP Mini 110-1179TU laptop keyboard
Abolish synagogues and not admit them to any employment. Finally, pursue the abolition of this religion. It’s not without cause that the Christians called them deicide. The Jew is the enemy of humankind. They must be sent back to Asia or be exterminated. By steel or by fire or by expulsion the Jew must disappear.[54] Lenovo 3000 G430 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In an introduction to Proudhon's works Iain McKay, author of 'An Anarchist FAQ' (AK Press, 2007),[55][56] cautions readers: "This is not to say that Proudhon was without flaws, for he had many." SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
He was not consistently libertarian in his ideas, tactics and language. His personal bigotries are disgusting and few modern anarchists would tolerate them – Namely, racism and sexism. He made some bad decisions and occasionally ranted in his private notebooks (where the worst of his anti-Semitism was expressed). TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard
While he did place his defence of the patriarchal family at the core of his ideas, they are in direct contradiction to his own libertarian and egalitarian ideas. In terms of racism, he sometimes reflected the less-than-enlightened assumptions and prejudices of the nineteenth century. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ230P/B laptop keyboard
While this does appear in his public work, such outbursts are both rare and asides (usually an extremely infrequent passing anti-Semitic remark or caricature). In short, “racism was never the basis of Proudhon’s political thinking” (Gemie, 200-1) and “anti-Semitism formed no part of Proudhon’s revolutionary programme.” TOSHIBA NSK-T4D01 laptop keyboard
(Robert Graham, “Introduction”, General Idea of the Revolution, xxxvi) To quote Proudhon: “There will no longer be nationality, no longer fatherland, in the political sense of the words: they will mean only places of birth. Man, of whatever race or colour he may be, is an inhabitant of the universe; citizenship is everywhere an acquired right.” (General Idea of the Revolution, 283) HP Pavilion dv6-3050sg laptop keyboard
—Iain McKay, "Property Is Theft! A Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Anthology. AK Press UK – Edinburgh, 2011" p. 36
Nevertheless, while racism was not overtly part of his political philosophy, Proudhon did publicly express sexist beliefs. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
In her study of Gustave Courbet, who painted the portrait of Proudhon and his children (1865) – art historian Linda Nochlin points out that alongside his early articulations of anarchism Proudhon also wrote and published “the most consistent anti-feminist tract of its time, or perhaps, any other,” LFUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard
a Pornocratie ou les femmes dans les temps modernes, which “raises all the main issues about woman’s position is society and her sexuality with a paranoid intensity unmatched in any other text.” (Nochlin, Courbet. Thames & Hudson, 2007. p. 220, note 34) DELL KR737 laptop keyboard
Proudhon's defenses of patriarchy did not go unchallenged in his lifetime; Joseph Déjacque attacked Proudhon's anti-feminism as a contradiction of anarchist principles. Déjacque directed Proudhon "either to 'speak out against man's exploitation of woman' SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
or 'do not describe yourself as an anarchist.'" (Jesse Cohn "Anarchism and gender" in: The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Immanuel Ness (Ed.), 2009)
The International Workingmen's Association (IWA, 1864–1876), SONY 1-487-385-21 laptop keyboard
often called the First International, was an international organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, communist[1] and anarchistpolitical groups and trade union organizations that were based on the working class and class struggle. It was founded in 1864 in a workmen's meeting held in Saint Martin's Hall, London. Its first congress was held in 1866 in Geneva. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
In Europe, a period of harsh reaction followed the widespread Revolutions of 1848. The next major phase of revolutionary activity began almost twenty years later with the founding of the IWA in 1864. At its peak, the IWA had 5 million members according to the police reports,[2] although the official journal reported 8 million members.[3] ACER Extensa 5235 laptop keyboard
On September 28, a great international meeting for the reception of the French delegates took place in St. Martin’s Hall in London. The meeting was attended by a wide array of European radicals, including English Owenites, GATEWAY ML3109 laptop keyboard
French followers ofPierre-Joseph Proudhon and Louis Auguste Blanqui, Irish and Polish nationalists, Italian republicans, and German socialists.[4] Included among the last-mentioned of this eclectic band was a somewhat obscure 46-year old émigré journalist, Karl Marx, who would soon come to play a decisive role in the organisation.[4] DELL Vostro PP37L laptop keyboard
The positivist historian Edward Spencer Beesly, a professor at London University, was in the chair.[4] His speech pilloried the violent proceedings of the governments and referred to their flagrant breaches of international law and advocated a union of the workers of the world for the realisation of justice on earth. George Odger, Secretary of the London Trades Council, read a speech calling for international co-operation. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
The meeting unanimously decided to found an international organisation of workers. The centre was to be in London, directed by a committee of 21, which was instructed to draft a programme and constitution. Most of the British members of the committee were drawn from the Universal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes[5] HP Pavilion dv6-3090ca laptop keyboard
and were noted trade-union leaders like Odger, George Howell (former secretary of the London Trades Council (LTC) which itself declined affiliation to the IWA (although remaining close to it)), Osborne, and Lucraft and included Owenites and Chartists. The French members were Denoual, Victor Le Lubez, HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
and Bosquet. Italy was represented by Fontana. Other members were: Louis Wolff, Johann Eccarius, and at the foot of the list, Karl Marx. Marx participated in his individual capacity, and did not speak during the meeting.[6] HP Mini 210-2060sb laptop keyboard
This executive committee in turn selected a subcommittee to do the actual writing of the organisational programme — a group which included Karl Marx and which met at his home about a week after the conclusion of the St. Martin's Hall assembly.[4] This subcommittee deferred the task of collective writing in favor of sole authorship by Marx, and it was he who ultimately drew up the fundamental documents of the new organisation.[4] DELL Inspiron 1720 laptop keyboard
On October 5, the General Council was formed with co-opted additional members representing other nationalities. It was based at the headquarters of theUniversal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes at 18 Greek Street.[7] DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard
Different groups offered proposals for the organisation: Louis Wolff (Mazzini's secretary) offered a proposal based on the rules and constitution of the Italian Workingmen’s Association (a Mazzinist organisation) and John Weston, an Owenite, also tabled a programme. Wolff left for Italy, and Lubez rewrote it in a way which appalled Marx. HP Mini 210-2004sa Laptop Keyboard
Through deft manipulation of the sub-committee Marx was left with all the papers, and set about writing the Address to the Working Classes to which was attached a simplified set of rules.
At its founding, the International Workingmen's Association was an alliance of people from diverse groups, including French Mutualists, Blanquists, English Owenites, Italian republicans, HP 441426-001 Laptop Keyboard
such American proponents of individualist anarchism as Stephen Pearl Andrews and William B. Greene, followers ofMazzini, and other socialists of various persuasions. Over its short life it grew into a major movement, with local federations in many countries developing strong bases of working class activism. Karl Marx was a constant, and leading, figure from the start—he was elected to every succeeding General Council of the association. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
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At first the IWA had mostly male membership, although in April 1865 it was agreed that women could become members. The initial leadership was exclusively male. At the IWA General Council meeting on 16 April 1867 a letter from the secularist speaker Harriet Law about Women's Rights was read, and it was agreed to ask her if she would be willing to attend council meetings. HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard
On 25 June 1867 Law was admitted to the General Council, and for the next five years was the only woman representative.[8]
Due to the wide variety of philosophies present in the First International, there was conflict from the start. The first objections to Marx's influence came from the Mutualists who opposed communism and statism. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Laptop Keyboard
However, shortly after Mikhail Bakunin and his followers (called Collectivists while in the International) joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Perhaps the clearest differences between the groups emerged over their proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism. The anarchists grouped around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) "direct economical struggle against capitalism, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation." Marxist thinking, at that time, focused on parliamentary activity. For example, when the new German Empire of 1871 introduced male suffrage, many German socialists became active in the Marxist Social Democratic Party of Germany. HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
The Lausanne Congress of the International was held on September 2–8, 1867. Marx was unable to attend, as he was working on the final proofs of Das Kapital. The Congress was attended by 64 delegates from Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, HP 599572-001 Laptop Keyboard
Italy and Switzerland. The reports delivered recorded the increased influence of the International on the working classes in various countries. The Proudhonist delegates, primarily from France, influenced the orientation of the International’s activity and its programmatic principles. Despite the efforts of the General Council’s delegates, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
they succeeded in revising the resolutions of the Geneva Congress, passing a number of their resolutions, in particular on cooperation and credit.
However, the Congress confirmed the Geneva Congress resolutions on the economic struggle and strikes and passed a resolution on political freedom which emphasised that the social emancipation of workers was inseparable from political liberation. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Proudhonists also failed to seize the leadership of the International, as the Congress re-elected the General Council in its former composition and retained London as its seat.
However, HP G42-392TX Laptop Keyboard
the Lausanne Congress ignored the General Council’s resolution and resolved officially to take part in the Congress of the League of Peace and Freedom. However, this Congress was attended by several General Council and some other International members and failed to resolve its political differences. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard
Proudhon believed that the common conception of property conflated two distinct components which, once identified, demonstrated the difference between property used to further tyranny and property used to protect liberty. He argued that the result of an individual's labor which is currently occupied or used is a legitimate form of property. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
Thus, he opposed unused land being regarded as property, believing that land can only be rightfully possessed by use or occupation (which he called "possession"). As an extension of his belief that legitimate property (possession) was the result of labor and occupation, he argued against such institutions as interest on loans and rent. HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard
The proprietor, the robber, the hero, the sovereign — for all these titles are synonymous — imposes his will as law, and suffers neither contradiction nor control; that is, he pretends to be the legislative and the executive power at once . . . [and so] property engenders despotism . . . Lenovo 45N2141 laptop keyboard
That is so clearly the essence of property that, to be convinced of it, one need but remember what it is, and observe what happens around him. Property is the right to use and abuse . . . if goods are property, why should not the proprietors be kings, and despotic kings — kings in proportion to their facultes bonitaires? DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
And if each proprietor is sovereign lord within the sphere of his property, absolute king throughout his own domain, how could a government of proprietors be any thing but chaos and confusion? HP Probook 4750 laptop keyboard
Proudhon contrasted the supposed right of property with the rights (which he considered valid) of liberty, equality, and security, saying: "The liberty and security of the rich do not suffer from the liberty and security of the poor; HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
far from that, they mutually strengthen and sustain each other. The rich man’s right of property, on the contrary, has to be continually defended against the poor man’s desire for property." He further argued that the right of property contradicted these other rights: HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
"Then if we are associated for the sake of liberty, equality, and security, we are not associated for the sake of property; then if property is a natural right, this natural right is not social, but anti-social. Property and society are utterly irreconcilable institutions." HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
Though Proudhon rejects the right of property per se, he also argues that the state of possession as it is (or was) could not be justified even by supposing this right. Here he feigns to bring a legal claim against society, in a style mocking legal rhetoric: Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E125 laptop keyboard
In writing this memoir against property, I bring against universal society an action petitoire [a legal claim to title]: I prove that those who do not possess to-day are proprietors by the same title as those who do possess; but, instead of inferring therefrom that property should be shared by all, I demand, in the name of general security, SONY VAIO VGN-CS110D/W laptop keyboard
its entire abolition. If I fail to win my case, there is nothing left for us (the proletarian class and myself) but to cut our throats: we can ask nothing more from the justice of nations; for, as the code of procedure (art 26) HP Pavilion DV7-3160us laptop keyboard
tells us in its energetic style, the plaintiff who has been non-suited in an action petitoire, is debarred thereby from bringing an action possessoire. If, on the contrary, I gain the case, we must then commence an action possessoire, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
[a legal repossession] that we may be reinstated in the enjoyment of the wealth of which we are deprived by property. I hope that we shall not be forced to that extremity; but these two actions cannot be prosecuted at once, such a course being prohibited by the same code of procedure.
—Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Property? (emphasis added) HP G42-475TU laptop keyboard
Proudhon claims that his treatise "shall prove beyond a doubt that property, to be just and possible, must necessarily have equality for its condition." He used the term mutuellisme (mutualism) to describe his vision of an economy in which individuals and democratic workers associations could trade their produce on the market under the constraint of equality. DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
A workers' council is a form of political and economic organization in which a single place of work or enterprise, such as a factory, school, or farm, is controlled collectively by the workers of that workplace, through the core principle of temporary and instantly revocable delegates. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
In a system with temporary and instantly revocable delegates, workers decided on what their agenda is and what their needs are. They also mandate a temporary delegate to divulge and pursue them. The temporary delegates are elected among the workers themselves, can be instantly revoked if they betray their mandate, HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard
and are supposed to change frequently. There are no managers and all decision power and organization is based on the delegates system.
On a larger scale, a group of delegates may in turn elect a delegate in a higher position to pursue their mandate, SONY 148024022 laptop keyboard
and so on, until the top delegates are running the industrial system of a state. In such a system decision power rises from bottom to top from the agendas of the workers themselves, and there is not a decision imposition from the top, as would happen in the case of a power seizure by a bureaucratic layer who are immune to instant revocation. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard
Several times in modern history the idea of workers' councils has been attributed to similar forms of organization, although in most cases the workers didn't actually have full power control, and were subdued to some external authority. Examples include Russia in 1905 and 1917, where councils were called "soviets";[1] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard
during 1918 (Räte); Turin,Italy during 1919–1920; rural Ireland during 1920–1921; China during 1926–1927; Spain during 1936; Hungary during 1919and 1956; France during 1871 and 1968; Chile in 1973 (cordones); Iran during 1978–1979 (shoras[2]). HP 403809-001 Laptop Keyboard
Despite Lenin's declarations that "the workers must demand the immediate establishment of genuine control, to be exercised by the workers themselves", on May 30, the Menshevik minister of labor, Skobolev, pledged to not give the control of industry to the workers but instead to the state: DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard
"The transfer of enterprises into the hands of the people will not at the present time assist the revolution [...] The regulation and control of industry is not a matter for a particular class. It is a task for the state. Upon the individual class, especially the working class, lies the responsibility for helping the state in its organizational work."[3][4] TOSHIBA Satellite L355 Laptop Keyboard
In the workers' councils organised as part of the German revolution, factory organisations, such as the General Workers' Union of Germany (AAUD), formed the basis for organising region-wide councils. The council communists in the Communist Workers' Party of Germany advocated organising "on the basis of places of work, not trades, and to establish a National Federation of Works Committees."[5] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Councils operate on the principle of recallable delegates. This means that elected delegates may be recalled at any time through a vote in a form of impeachment. Recall of management committee members, specialist professionals such as engineers, and delegates to higher councils was observed in the Central Workers Council of Greater Budapest during 1956, where delegates were removed for industrial, organisational and political reasons. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
Workers' councils combine to elect higher bodies for coordinating between one another. This means that the upper councils are not superior to the lower councils, but are instead built from and operated by them. The national council would therefore have delegates from every city in the country. Their nature means that workers'DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
councils do away with traditional centralized governments and instead give power indirectly to the people. This type of democratic order is called council democracy. The Central Workers Council of Greater Budapest occupied this role in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, between late October and early January 1957, where it grew out of local factory committees. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
A workers' council is a deliberative assembly, composed of working class members, intended to institute workers' self-management or workers' control. Unlike a trade union, in a workers' council the workers are assumed to be in actual control of the workplace, rather than merely negotiating with employers through collective bargaining. They are a form ofworkplace democracy. ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Laptop Keyboard
Many Marxists and most anarchists believe that workers' councils embody the fundamental principles of socialism, such as workers' control over production and distribution. Indeed, some have described this as "socialism from below," which they counterpose against what they see as "socialism from above" endorsed by Stalinism and Maoism. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
· According to this view, socialism from above is carried out by a centralized state run by an elite bureaucratic apparatus, whereas socialism from below represents the self-administration and self-rule of the working class. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
Some left communists (particularly council communists) and anarchists support a council-based society; believing that only the workers themselves can spark a revolution and so workers' councils will be the foundation of the revolution. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
There are also Leninists (for example the International Socialist Tendency and its offshoots) who advocate a council-based society,[6] but maintain that workers' councils cannot carry out a revolution without the leadership of a vanguard party.[7] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
During May 1968 ( "The largest general strike that ever stopped the economy of an advanced industrial country, and the first wildcat general strike in history" ), the Situationists, against the unions and the Communist Party that were starting to side with the de Gaulle government to contain the revolt, called for the formation of workers' councils to take control of the factories, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
expelling union leaders and left-wing bureaucrats, in order to keep the power in the hands of the workers with direct democracy.[8]
Capitalism is an economic system in which trade, industry and the means of production are controlled by private owners with the goal of making profits in a market economy.[1][2] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets and wage labor.[3] In a capitalist economy, the parties to a transaction typically determine the prices at which assets, goods, and services are exchanged.[4] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
The degree of competition, role of intervention and regulation, and scope of public ownership varies across different models of capitalism.[5] Economists, political economists, and historians have taken different perspectives in their analysis of capitalism and recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire capitalism, SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
welfare capitalism and state capitalism; each highlighting varying degrees of dependency on markets, public ownership, and inclusion of social policies. The extent to which different markets are free, as well as the rules defining private property, is a matter of politics and policy. Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
Many states have what are termed capitalist mixed economies, referring to a mix between planned and market-driven elements.[6] Crony capitalism, is a state of affairs in which insider corruption, nepotism and cartels dominate the system. In Marxian economics this is considered to be the normal state of mature capitalism, while in anarcho-capitalist theory it is considered a political distortion of capital and markets.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in many different times, places, and cultures.[8] Following the demise of feudalism, capitalism became the dominant economic system in the Western world. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
Later, in the 20th century, capitalism overcame a challenge by centrally-planned economies and is now the dominant system worldwide,[9][10] with themixed economy being its dominant form in the industrialized Western world. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
Different economic perspectives emphasize specific elements of capitalism in their preferred definition. Laissez-faireand liberal economists emphasize the degree to which government does not have control over markets and the importance ofproperty rights.[11][12] HP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
Neoclassical and Keynesian macro-economists emphasize the need for government regulation to prevent monopolies and to soften the effects of the boom and bust cycle.[13] Marxian economists emphasize the role of capital accumulation, exploitation and wage labor. Most political economists emphasize private property as well, in addition to power relations, wage labor, class, and the uniqueness of capitalism as a historical formation.[6]
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[14] Critics of capitalism variously associate it with economic instability[15] and an inability to provide for the well-being of all people.[16] In contrast to both perspectives, socialists maintain that capitalism is superior to all previously existing economic systems (such as feudalism or HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
slavery) but that the contradiction between class interests will only be resolved by advancing into a completely social system of production and distribution in which all persons have an equal relationship to the means of production.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
The term capitalism, in its modern sense, is often attributed to Karl Marx.[8][18] In his magnum opus Capital, Marx wrote of the "capitalist mode of production" using a method of understanding today known as Marxism. ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
However, while Marx rarely used the term "capitalism", it was used twice in the more political interpretations of his work, primarily authored by his collaborator Friedrich Engels. In the 20th century defenders of the capitalist system often replaced the termcapitalism with phrases such as free enterprise and private enterprise and replaced capitalist with rentier and investorin reaction to the negative connotations associated with capitalism.[19] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
The economic foundations of the feudal agricultural system began to shift substantially in 16th century England; themanorial system had broken down by this time, and land began to be concentrated in the hands of fewer landlords with increasingly large estates. Instead of a serf-based system of labor, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
workers were increasingly being employed as part of a broader and expanding money economy. The system put pressure on both the landlords and the tenants to increase the productivity of the agriculture to make profit; DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
the weakened coercive power of the aristocracy to extract peasantsurpluses encouraged them to try out better methods, and the tenants also had incentive to improve their methods, in order to flourish in an increasingly competitive labor market. Terms of rent for the land were becoming subject to economic market forces rather than the previous stagnant system of custom and feudal obligation. [21] HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
By the early 17th-century, England was a centralized state, in which much of the feudal order of Medieval Europe had been swept away. This centralization was strengthened by a good system of roads and a disproportionately large capital city,London. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
The capital acted as a central market hub for the entire country, creating a very large internal market for goods, instead of the fragmented feudal holdings that prevailed in most parts of the Continent. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730F laptop keyboard
The economic doctrine that held sway between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries is commonly described asmercantilism.[22] This period, the Age of Discovery, was associated with the geographic exploration of foreign lands by merchant traders, especially from England and the Low Countries. Mercantilism was a system of trade for profit, although commodities wHP Pavilion DV7-3112tx laptop keyboard
ere still largely produced by non-capitalist production methods.[8] Most scholars consider the era of merchant capitalism and mercantilism as the origin of modern capitalism,[23][24] although Karl Polanyi argued that the hallmark of capitalism is the establishment of generalized markets for what he referred to as the "fictitious commodities": TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5107 laptop keyboard
land, labor, and money. Accordingly, he argued that "not until 1834 was a competitive labor market established in England, hence industrial capitalism as a social system cannot be said to have existed before that date."[25] GATEWAY P-6825 laptop keyboard
England began a large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era (1558–1603). A systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun's argument England's Treasure by Forraign Trade, or the Balance of our Forraign Trade is The Rule of Our Treasure. It was written in the 1620s and published in 1664.[26] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Among the major tenets of mercantilist theory was bullionism, a doctrine stressing the importance of accumulating precious metals. Mercantilists argued that a state should export more goods than it imported so that foreigners would have to pay the difference in precious metals. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Mercantilists argued that only raw materials that could not be extracted at home should be imported; and promoted government subsidies, such as the granting of monopolies and protective tariffs, which mercantilists thought were necessary to encourage home production of manufactured goods. Sugataro Yabuki was the second son born to Kunizo SONY VAIO VGN-AR770 laptop keyboard
and Kichi Yabuki in 1859 in the Hadeki district of what would later become Japan's Okayama prefecture. He was adopted by the Katayama family at nineteen and adopted the name Sen Katayama, becoming the Katayama's "first son," after his birth mother was deserted by her husband. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
The adoption avoided Katayama's conscription and allowed him to continue his education. In his autobiography, Jiden (自伝), Katayama admitted that he was fortunate not to have been the first born in his birth family, as it saved him from some of the responsibilities that burdened some of his acquaintances. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
In 1878 Katayama travelled to Tokyo to apprentice as a printer while he studied at a small preparatory school, the Oka Juku, where he formed a friendship with Iwasaki Seikichi (岩崎 清吉), nephew of one of the founders of Mitsubishi. Iwasaki's departure for Yale University inspired Katayama to work his way to the United States. Katayama attended Grinnell College, GATEWAY NX570X laptop keyboard
from which he graduated in 1892, proceeding to the Andover Theological Seminary and then to Yale Divinity School. During this period Katayama became a Christian and a socialist. Before attending Grinnell, Katayama attended Maryville College. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Katayama returned to Japan in 1896 and from 1897 to 1901 edited Labour World (労働世界), the organ of the Iron Workers' Union (鉄工組合)and Trade Unions' Federation (労働組合期成会)and Japan's first socialist party. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
He returned to America in 1903 at the urging of Iwasaki to look into rice-farming opportunities. During this trip he attended the Second International Socialist Congress in Amsterdam where he gained recognition for shaking hands with the Russian delegate, G.V. Plekhanov, in a gesture of amity between the Russian and Japanese peoples, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
despite the ongoing Russo-Japanese War. In 1904 he attended an American Socialist Party convention in Chicago. He settled in Texas and his main business became rice farming. When his rice crop failed he became employed by a Japanese restaurant owner in Houston, HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
Tsunekichi Okasaki, who bought 10,202 acres (41.29 km2) of land in Texas with the plan that Katayama farm it. In late 1905 Okasaki and Katayama borrowed $100,000 from Iwasaki to fund the rice harvest, and together they formed a "Nippon Kono Kabushiki Kaisha" (Japan Farming Company) to develop the Texas project, SONY VAIO VGN-CR31S Laptop Keyboard
and Katayama was made managing director. However, the company quickly dissolved, reputedly over Katayama's socialist leanings, and he returned to Japan in 1907, rejoined the Socialist movement, and pursued a career in journalism. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S Laptop Keyboard
Katayama was arrested and jailed for his participation in the Tokyo Streetcar Strike of 1912, and after his release he left Japan for California. Attracted by the success of the Bolshevik revolution of 1917-18, SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Katayama became an active communist and an officer for Comintern. He travelled to Mexico and later to Moscow, where he was hailed as a leader of the Japanese Communist movement. He remained in the Soviet Union until his death on November 5, 1933 and was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
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