Victor Hugo
Victor Marie Hugo (French pronunciation: [viktɔʁ maʁi yɡo]; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best known French writers. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ220 laptop keyboard
In France, Hugo's literary fame comes first from his poetry but also rests upon his novels and his dramatic achievements. Among many volumes of poetry, Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles stand particularly high in critical esteem. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables, 1862, andNotre-Dame de Paris, 1831 (known in English as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame).
Though a committed royalist when he was young, Hugo's views changed as the decades passed;[1] he became a passionate supporter of republicanism,[citation needed] and his work touches upon most of the political and social issues and artistic trends of his time. He was buried in the Panthéon. HP Pavilion dv6-2119tx laptop keyboard
Hugo was the third son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo (1774–1828) and Sophie Trébuchet (1772–1821); his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo (1798–1855) and Eugène Hugo (1800–1837). He was born in 1802 in Besançon Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
(in the region of Franche-Comté). Hugo was a freethinking republican who considered Napoléon a hero; his mother was a Catholic Royalist who is believed[by whom?] to have taken as her lover General Victor Lahorie, who was executed in 1812 for plotting against Napoléon. Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
Hugo's childhood was a period of national political turmoil. Napoléon was proclaimed Emperor two years after Hugo's birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his eighteenth birthday. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
The opposing political and religious views of Hugo's parents reflected the forces that would battle for supremacy in France throughout his life: Hugo's father was a high-ranked officer in Napoleon's army until he failed in Spain (one of the reasons why his name is not present on the Arc de Triomphe). Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
Since Hugo's father was an officer, the family moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On a childhood family trip to Naples, Hugo saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean, and Rome during its festivities. SONY Vaio VGN-AW Laptop Keyboard
[original research?] Though he was only five years old at the time, he remembered the six-month-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris. HP Pavilion DV1000 Laptop Keyboard
At the beginning of her marriage, Hugo's mother Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy (where Léopold served as a governor of a province near Naples) and Spain (where he took charge of three Spanish provinces). SONY VGN-FE31M Laptop Keyboard
Weary of the constant moving required by military life, and at odds with her husband's lack of Catholic beliefs, Sophie separated temporarily from Léopold in 1803 and settled in Paris with her children. Thereafter she dominated Hugo's education and upbringing. As a result, Hugo's early work in poetry and fiction reflect her passionate devotion to both King and Faith. HP 634139-001 Laptop Keyboard
It was only later, during the events leading up to France's 1848 Revolution, that he would begin to rebel against his Catholic Royalist education and instead champion Republicanism and Freethought. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Young Victor fell in love and against his mother's wishes became secretly engaged to his childhood friend Adèle Foucher (1803–1868). Because of his close relationship to his mother, Hugo waited until after his mother's death (in 1821) to marry Adèle in 1822. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, but the boy died in infancy. The following year, on 28 August 1824, the couple's second child, Léopoldine was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard
and Adèle on 24 August 1830.
He wrote many poems afterwards about his daughter's life and death, and at least one biographer claims he never completely recovered from it. His most famous poem is probably Demain, dès l'aube, in which he describes visiting her grave. ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard
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Hugo decided to live in exile after Napoleon III's Coup d'état at the end of 1851. After leaving France, Hugo lived in Brussels briefly in 1851 before moving to the Channel Islands, first to Jersey (1852-1855) and then to the smaller island of Guernsey in 1855, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
where he stayed until 1870. Although Napoleon III proclaimed a general amnesty in 1859, under which Hugo could have safely returned to France, the author stayed in exile, only returning when Napoleon III was forced from power as a result of the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. After the Siege of Paris, FUJITSU CP270342-02 Laptop Keyboard
Hugo lived again in Guernsey from 1872-73 before finally returning to France for the remainder of his life.
Hugo published his first novel the year following his marriage (Han d'Islande, 1823), and his second three years later (Bug-Jargal, 1826). HP Pavilion dv6-2119tx Laptop Keyboard
Between 1829 and 1840 he would publish five more volumes of poetry (Les Orientales, 1829;Les Feuilles d'automne, 1831; Les Chants du crépuscule, 1835; Les Voix intérieures, 1837; and Les Rayons et les ombres, 1840), cementing his reputation as one of the greatest elegiac and lyric poets of his time. DELL Vostro 3450 laptop keyboard
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Like many young writers of his generation, Hugo was profoundly influenced by François-René de Chateaubriand, the famous figure in the literary movement of Romanticism and France's preeminent literary figure during the early 19th century. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21Z laptop keyboard
In his youth, Hugo resolved to be "Chateaubriand or nothing," and his life would come to parallel that of his predecessor in many ways. Like Chateaubriand, Hugo would further the cause of Romanticism, become involved in politics (though mostly as a champion of Republicanism), and be forced into exile due to his political stances. SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
The precocious passion and eloquence of Hugo's early work brought success and fame at an early age. His first collection of poetry (Odes et poésies diverses) was published in 1822, when Hugo was only twenty years old, and earned him a royal pension from Louis XVIII. Though the poems were admired for their spontaneous fervor and fluency, ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
it was the collection that followed four years later in 1826 (Odes et Ballades) that revealed Hugo to be a great poet, a natural master of lyric and creative song.
Victor Hugo's first mature work of fiction appeared in 1829, SONY Vaio VGN-AW190 laptop keyboard
and reflected the acute social conscience that would infuse his later work. Le Dernier jour d'un condamné (The Last Day of a Condemned Man) would have a profound influence on later writers such as Albert Camus, Charles Dickens, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
Claude Gueux, a documentary short story about a real-life murderer who had been executed in France, appeared in 1834, and was later considered by Hugo himself to be a precursor to his great work on social injustice, Les Misérables. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
Hugo's novel Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of Notre-Dame) was published in 1831 and quickly translated into other languages across Europe. One of the effects of the novel was to shame the City of Paris into restoring the much-neglected Cathedral of Notre Dame, HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
which was attracting thousands of tourists who had read the popular novel. The book also inspired a renewed appreciation for pre-Renaissance buildings, which thereafter began to be actively preserved. DELL Vostro 3450 laptop keyboard
Hugo began planning a major novel about social misery and injustice as early as the 1830s, but it would take a full 17 years for Les Misérables to be realized and finally published in 1862. Hugo was acutely aware of the quality of the novel and publication of the work went to the highest bidder. TOSHIBA Satellite L670-117 laptop keyboard
The Belgian publishing house Lacroix and Verboeckhoven undertook a marketing campaign unusual for the time, issuing press releases about the work a full six months before the launch. It also initially published only the first part of the novel ("Fantine"), which was launched simultaneously in major cities. Installments of the book sold out within hours, and had enormous impact on French society. SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard
The critical establishment was generally hostile to the novel; Taine found it insincere, Barbey d'Aurevilly complained of its vulgarity, Gustave Flaubert found within it "neither truth nor greatness", the Goncourts lambasted its artificiality, HP Pavilion DV7-3186cl laptop keyboard
and Baudelaire – despite giving favorable reviews in newspapers – castigated it in private as "tasteless and inept". Les Misérables proved popular enough with the masses that the issues it highlighted were soon on the agenda of the National Assembly of France. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
Today the novel remains his most enduringly popular work. It is popular worldwide, and has been adapted for cinema, television and stage shows.
The shortest correspondence in history is said to have been between Hugo and his publisher Hurst and Blackett in 1862. HP Pavilion DV7-3100 laptop keyboard
Hugo was on vacation when Les Misérables was published. He queried the reaction to the work by sending a single-character telegram to his publisher, asking "?". The publisher replied with a single "!" to indicate its success.[3] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
Hugo turned away from social/political issues in his next novel, Les Travailleurs de la Mer (Toilers of the Sea), published in 1866. The book was well received, perhaps due to the previous success of Les Misérables. DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
Dedicated to the channel island of Guernsey where he spent 15 years of exile, Hugo tells of a man who attempts to win the approval of his beloved's father by rescuing his ship, intentionally marooned by its captain who hopes to escape with a treasure of cash it is transporting, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
through an exhausting battle of human engineering against the force of the sea and a battle against an almost mythical beast of the sea, a giant squid. Superficially an adventure, one of Hugo's biographers calls it a "metaphor for the nineteenth century–technical progress, creative genius and hard work overcoming the immanent evil of the material world."[4] Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard
The word used in Guernsey to refer to squid (pieuvre, also sometimes applied to octopus) was to enter the French language as a result of its use in the book. Hugo returned to political and social issues in his next novel, L'Homme Qui Rit (The Man Who Laughs), which was published in 1869 and painted a critical picture of the aristocracy. ACER TravelMate 3250 laptop keyboard
The novel was not as successful as his previous efforts, and Hugo himself began to comment on the growing distance between himself and literary contemporaries such as Flaubert and Émile Zola, whose realist and naturalist novels were now exceeding the popularity of his own work. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard
His last novel, Quatre-vingt-treize (Ninety-Three), published in 1874, dealt with a subject that Hugo had previously avoided: the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. Though Hugo's popularity was on the decline at the time of its publication, many now consider Ninety-Three to be a work on par with Hugo's better-known novels. SONY Vaio PCG-K215S Laptop Keyboard
After three unsuccessful attempts, Hugo was finally elected to the Académie française in 1841, solidifying his position in the world of French arts and letters. A group of French academicians, particularly Etienne de Jouy, Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
were fighting against the "romantic evolution" and had managed to delay Victor Hugo's election.[5] Thereafter he became increasingly involved in French politics.
He was elevated to the peerage by King Louis-Philippe in 1841 and entered the Higher Chamber as a pair de France, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
where he spoke against the death penalty and social injustice, and in favour of freedom of the press and self-government for Poland. However, he was also becoming more supportive of the Republican form of government and, following the 1848 Revolution and the formation of the Second Republic, was elected to the Constitutional Assembly and the Legislative Assembly. SONY VAIO VGN-N11M Laptop Keyboard
When Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) seized complete power in 1851, establishing an anti-parliamentary constitution, Hugo openly declared him a traitor to France. He relocated to Brussels, then Jersey, HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
from which he was expelled for supporting a Jersey newspaper that had criticised Queen Victoria and finally settled with his family at Hauteville House in Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, where he would live in exile from October 1855 until 1870. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
While in exile, Hugo published his famous political pamphlets against Napoleon III, Napoléon le Petit and Histoire d'un crime. The pamphlets were banned in France, but nonetheless had a strong impact there. He also composed or published some of his best work during his period in Guernsey, including Les Misérables, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
and three widely praised collections of poetry (Les Châtiments, 1853; Les Contemplations, 1856; and La Légende des siècles, 1859).
He convinced the British government to spare the lives of six Irish people convicted of terrorist activities and his influence was credited in the removal of the death penalty from the constitutions of Geneva, Portugal andColombia.[6] HP G72-b62US Laptop Keyboard
He had also pleaded for Benito Juárez to spare the recently captured emperor Maximilian I of Mexico but to no avail. His complete archives (published by Pauvert) show also that he wrote a letter asking the USA, for the sake of their own reputation in the future, to spare John Brown's life, but the letter arrived after Brown was executed. HP 484748-001 Laptop Keyboard
Although Napoleon III granted an amnesty to all political exiles in 1859, Hugo declined, as it meant he would have to curtail his criticisms of the government. It was only after Napoleon III fell from power and the Third Republic was proclaimed that Hugo finally returned to his homeland in 1870, where he was promptly elected to the National Assembly and the Senate.
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As the siege continued, and food became ever more scarce, he wrote in his diary that he was reduced to "eating the unknown".[7]
Because of his concern for the rights of artists and copyright, he was a founding member of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale, which led to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. However HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
in Pauvert's published archives, he states strongly that "any work of art has two authors : the people who confusingly feel something, a creator who translates these feelings, and the people again who consecrate his vision of that feeling. When one of the authors dies, the rights should totally be granted back to the other, the people".HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Hugo's religious views changed radically over the course of his life. In his youth, he identified himself as a Catholic and professed respect for Church hierarchy and authority. From there he became a non-practicing Catholic, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and increasingly expressed anti-Catholic and anti-clerical views. He frequented Spiritism during his exile (where he participated also in many séances conducted by Madame Delphine de Girardin),[8][9] and in later years settled into aRationalist Deism similar to that espoused by Voltaire. A census-taker asked Hugo in 1872 if he was a Catholic, and he replied, "No. A Freethinker".[citation needed] HP Pavilion DV6-1030ca Laptop Keyboard
After that point, Hugo never lost his antipathy towards the Catholic Church, due largely to what he saw as the Church's indifference to the plight of the working class under the oppression of the monarchy; and perhaps also due to the frequency with which Hugo's work appeared on the Church's Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Hugo counted 740 attacks on Les Misérables in the Catholic press). ASUS A6R laptop keyboard
On the deaths of his sons Charles and François-Victor, he insisted that they be buried without a crucifix or priest, and in his will made the same stipulation about his own death and funeral. However, although Hugo believed Catholic dogma to be outdated and dying, he never directly attacked the actual doctrines of the Church. HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
Hugo's Rationalism can be found in poems such as Torquemada (1869, about religious fanaticism), The Pope (1878, anti-clerical), Religions and Religion (1880, denying the usefulness of churches) and, published posthumously, The End of Satan and God (1886 and 1891 respectively, SONY VAIO VGN-N27SH laptop keyboard
in which he represents Christianity as a griffin and Rationalism as an angel). Vincent van Gogh ascribed the saying "Religions pass away, but God remains", actually by Jules Michelet, to Hugo.[10] TOSHIBA Satellite m505-s4940 laptop keyboard
Although Hugo's many talents did not include exceptional musical ability, he nevertheless had a great impact on the music world through the inspiration that his works provided for composers of the 19th and 20th century. HP Pavilion dv6-3040er laptop keyboard
Hugo himself particularly enjoyed the music of Gluck and Weber and greatly admired Beethoven, and rather unusually for his time, he also appreciated works by composers from earlier centuries such as Palestrina and Monteverdi.[11] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Two famous musicians of the 19th century were friends of Hugo: Berlioz and Liszt. The latter played Beethoven in Hugo's home, and Hugo joked in a letter to a friend that thanks to Liszt's piano lessons, he learned how to play a favourite song on the piano – HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
with only one finger. Hugo also worked with composer Louise Bertin, writing the libretto for her 1836 opera La Esmeralda which was based on the character in The Hunchback of Notre Dame.[11] HP Pavilion DV6-1040ev Laptop Keyboard
Although for various reasons the opera closed soon after its fifth performance and is little known today, it has been recently enjoying a revival, both in a piano/song concert version by Liszt at the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux 2007[12] and in a full orchestral version presented in July 2008 at Le Festival de Radio France et Montpellier Languedoc-Roussillon.[13] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa Laptop Keyboard
Well over one thousand musical compositions have been inspired by Hugo's works from the 19th century until the present day. In particular, Hugo's plays, in which he rejected the rules of classical theatre in favour of romantic drama, HP G62-a10EP Laptop Keyboard
attracted the interest of many composers who adapted them into operas. More than one hundred operas are based on Hugo's works and among them are Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia (1833), Verdi's Rigoletto (1851) and Ernani(1844), and Ponchielli's La Gioconda (1876).[14] HP G42-461TU Laptop Keyboard
Hugo's novels as well as his plays have been a great source of inspiration for musicians, stirring them to create not only opera and ballet but musical theatre such as Notre-Dame de Paris and the ever-popular Les Misérables, London West End's longest running musical. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Additionally, Hugo's beautiful poems have attracted an exceptional amount of interest from musicians, and numerous melodies have been based on his poetry by composers such as Berlioz, Bizet, Fauré, Franck, Lalo, Liszt, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Rachmaninov andWagner.[14] TOSHIBA Satellite 1800-921 Laptop Keyboard
Today, Hugo's work continues to stimulate musicians to create new compositions. For example, Hugo's novel against capital punishment, The Last Day of a Condemned Man, was adapted into an opera by David Alagna, with a libretto by Frédérico Alagna and premiered by their brother, tenor Roberto Alagna, in 2007.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
In Guernsey, every two years the Victor Hugo International Music Festival attracts a wide range of musicians and the premiere of songs specially commissioned from such composers as Guillaume Connesson, Richard Dubugnon, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Olivier Kaspar and Thierry Escaich and based on Hugo's poetry.
When Hugo returned to Paris in 1870, the country hailed him as a national hero. Despite his popularity Hugo lost his bid for reelection to the National Assembly in 1872. Within a brief period, he suffered a mild stroke, his daughter Adèle's internment in an insane asylum, and the death of his two sons. (Adèle's biography inspired the movie The Story of Adele H.) HP COMPAQ NX6325 Laptop Keyboard
His wife Adèle had died in 1868.
His faithful mistress, Juliette Drouet, died in 1883, only two years before his own death. Despite his personal loss, Hugo remained committed to the cause of political change. On 30 January 1876 Hugo was elected to the newly created Senate. The last phase of his political career was considered a failure. Hugo took on the role of a maverick and got little done in the Senate. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
Hugo suffered a mild stroke on 27 June 1878.[16][17] In February 1881 Hugo celebrated his 79th birthday. To honor the fact that he was entering his eightieth year, one of the greatest tributes to a living writer was held. HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard
The celebrations began on the 25th when Hugo was presented with a Sèvres vase, the traditional gift for sovereigns. On the 27th one of the largest parades in French history was held.
Marchers stretched from Avenue d'Eylau, where the author was living, down the Champs-Élysées, and all the way to the center of Paris. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
The paraders marched for six hours to pass Hugo as he sat in the window at his house. Every inch and detail of the event was for Hugo; the official guides even wore cornflowers as an allusion to Fantine's song in Les Misérables. Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard
On the 28th, the city of Paris changed the name of the Avenue d'Eylau into Avenue Victor-Hugo.[18] Letters addressed to the author were from then on labelled « To Mister Victor Hugo, In his avenue, Paris ». HP 405963-001 Laptop Keyboard
Victor Hugo's death from pneumonia on 22 May 1885, at the age of 83, generated intense national mourning. He was not only revered as a towering figure in literature, he was a statesman who shaped the Third Republic and democracy in France. HP 405963-001 Laptop Keyboard
More than two million people joined his funeral procession in Paris from the Arc de Triomphe to the Panthéon, where he was buried. He shares a crypt within the Panthéon with Alexandre Dumas and Émile Zola. Most large French towns and cities have a street named after him. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Hugo produced more than 4000 drawings. Originally pursued as a casual hobby, drawing became more important to Hugo shortly before his exile, when he made the decision to stop writing in order to devote himself to politics. Drawing became his exclusive creative outlet during the period 1848–1851. SONY VAIO VGN-AW11S/B Laptop Keyboard
Hugo worked only on paper, and on a small scale; usually in dark brown or black pen-and-ink wash, sometimes with touches of white, and rarely with color. The surviving drawings are surprisingly accomplished and "modern" in their style and execution, foreshadowing the experimental techniques of Surrealism and Abstract Expressionism. SONY VAIO VGN-AW31ZJ laptop keyboard
He would not hesitate to use his children's stencils, ink blots, puddles and stains, lace impressions, "pliage" or folding (i.e. Rorschach blots), "grattage" or rubbing, often using the charcoal from match sticks or his fingers instead of pen or brush. HP Pavilion dv6-3106sl laptop keyboard
Sometimes he would even toss in coffee or soot to get the effects he wanted. It is reported that Hugo often drew with his left hand or without looking at the page, or during Spiritualist séances, in order to access his unconscious mind, a concept only later popularized by Sigmund Freud. TOSHIBA Satellite U300-ST3091 laptop keyboard
Hugo kept his artwork out of the public eye, fearing it would overshadow his literary work. However, he enjoyed sharing his drawings with his family and friends, often in the form of ornately handmade calling cards, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
many of which were given as gifts to visitors when he was in political exile. DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
The people of Guernsey erected a statue by sculptor Jean Boucher in Candie Gardens (St. Peter Port) to commemorate his stay in the islands. The City of Paris has preserved his residences Hauteville House, Guernsey and 6, Place des Vosges, Paris as museums. The house where he stayed in Vianden, Luxembourg, in 1871 has also become a commemorative museum. HP Mini 110-3103sl laptop keyboard
Hugo is venerated as a saint in the Vietnamese religion of Cao Dai, being one of the only three saints recognized.[19]
The Avenue Victor-Hugo in the XVIème arrondissement of Paris bears Hugo's name, and links the Place de l'Étoile to the vicinity of the Bois de Boulogne by way of the Place Victor-Hugo. This square is served by a Paris Métro stop also named in his honor. HP 405963-001 laptop keyboard
A number of streets and avenues throughout France are likewise named after him. The school Lycée Victor Hugo was founded in his town of birth, Besançon in France. Avenue Victor-Hugo, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada, was named to honor him. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21Z laptop keyboard
In the city of Avellino, Italy, Victor Hugo lived briefly stayed in what is now known as Il Palazzo Culturale, when reuniting with his father, Leopold Sigisbert Hugo, in 1808. Hugo would later write about his brief stay here quoting "C’était un palais de marbre...". TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5163 laptop keyboard
In Havana, Cuba there is a park named after him and bust of Hugo stands near the entrance of the Old Summer Palace in Beijing.
A mosaic commemorating Victor Hugo is located on the ceiling of the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress. HP Pavilion DV7-3164cl laptop keyboard
La Légende des siècles ("The Legend of the Ages") is a collection of poems by Victor Hugo, conceived as an immense depiction of the history and evolution of humanity.
Written intermittently between 1855 and 1876, Packard Bell Easynote TK81 laptop keyboard
while the exiled Victor Hugo worked on numerous other projects, the poems were published in three series in 1859, 1877, and 1883. Bearing witness to an unparalleled poetic talent in which all Hugo's art is evident, the Légende des Siècles is often considered the only true French epic and, according to Baudelaire's formulation, the only modern epic possible. DELL Inspiron 1525 laptop keyboard
The dreaming poet contemplates the "wall of the centuries," indistinct and terrible, on which scenes of the past, present and future are drawn, and along which the whole long procession of humanity can be seen. HP G62-b36EE laptop keyboard
The poems are depictions of these scenes, fleetingly perceived and interspersed with terrifying visions. Hugo sought neither historical accuracy nor exhaustiveness; rather, he concentrated on obscure figures, usually his own inventions, HP G62-b36EE laptop keyboard
who incarnated and symbolized their eras. As he proclaimed himself in the preface to the first series, "this is history, eavesdropped upon at the door of legend." The poems, by turns lyrical, epic and satirical, HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
form a view of the human experience, seeking less to summarize than to illustrate the history of humanity, and to bear witness to its long journey from the darkness into the light.
After Les Châtiments and Les Contemplations, his editor, Hetzel, was perturbed by the submission of La Fin de Satan and Dieu, both of which were nearly complete. HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
Seeing that Hugo was ready to proceed yet further down the metaphysical (or even eschatological) road mapped out by the final Contemplations, Hetzel became anxious at the probability of their failure with the public, SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
and preferred the sound of the Petites Epopées which Hugo had mentioned, feeling they would be more in harmony with the spirit of the times. Even though these "epics" were still no more than sketches, in March 1857 Hetzel wrote to Hugo, rejecting Fin de Satan and Dieu, but accepting with enthusiasm the Petites Epopées. DELL Inspiron 1720 laptop keyboard
This new commission was nevertheless transformed by the influence of Hugo's latest ideas and most recent works, created with the same dash and fire and in a sort of magma of inspiration: a mixture of poesy, mysticism and philosophy which is characteristic of Hugo's first decade of exile. ACER Aspire 4935 laptop keyboard
This inspiration normally led him to write a large number of poems, more or less brief, which would finally be published as components in projects which were constantly shifting and evolving. In this case Hugo integrated the little epics into his poetical system by casting them as the "human" panel in a triptych of which "God" and "Satan" were the wings, SONY VAIO PCG-FR215E Laptop Keyboard
with the implication that they were merely sparse fragments stolen from a greater epic: the whole of human experience itself. On 11 September 1857 Hugo signed a contract with Hetzel, reserving the right to alter the project's title. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
Later, Hetzel pronounced himself willing to publish La Fin de Satan and Dieu; but Hugo, perhaps conscious of the difficulties of completing either to his satisfaction, had by that time thrown himself entirely into the new project. FUJITSU CP228900-01 Laptop Keyboard
He began by taking the French Revolution as the turning point in human history, intending to use a poem entitled La Révolution as a pivot around which La Pitié Suprême or Le Verso de la page would revolve. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
More titles were written down, but some were discarded or greatly altered, and the section dealing with the 19th century coalesced as L'Océan — La Révolution — le Verso de la page — la Pitié Suprême — Les Pauvres Gens — L'épopée de l'Âne. ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
Hetzel followed this evolution with alarm, and, fearing that the great philosophical questions would turn these little epics into towering giants, endeavoured to temper Hugo's ardour. After a serious illness in the summer of 1858, Hugo tried to reassure Hetzel by writing in a more straightforwardly narrative vein (e.g. Le Petit Roi de Galice and Zim-Zizimi), ASUS V020462CS1 laptop keyboard
and modified his plans—but retained the general ambition, which he declared in a preface. He had hit on the idea of publishing in several instalments, to give himself more time and space within which to work. The title was not decided on until a month after the manuscript's submission. With his gift for phrases, Hugo came up with La Légende des Siècles. Petites Épopées was kept as a subtitle. SONY VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q laptop keyboard
Work on the second series began immediately after the first, but Hugo was soon busy with Les Misérables and with completing La Fin de Satan and Dieu. In 1862, with the publication of Les Misérables, SONY Vaio VGN-AW120J laptop keyboard
Hugo reviewed his earlier plan and gathered together the poems already written: L'Âne, Les Sept Merveilles du Monde (a recent one), La Révolution, and La Pitié Suprême. Again, he delayed work for the sake of novels (Les travailleurs de la mer and L'Homme Qui Rit). HP Pavilion DV7-2213tx laptop keyboard
In 1870, a decisive moment came, when Hugo decided to keep La Révolution for the future collection Les Quatre Vents de l'esprit, and to fuse together La Légende, Dieu and La Fin de Satan, according to the following plan: La Fin de Satan, first book — L'Océan — Elciis — La Vision de Dante —Les Religions (from Dieu) SONY VAIO PCG-FR215E laptop keyboard
— La Pitié Suprême. Current events in the 1870s, however, saw upheavals in Hugo's life, and he was once more greatly involved in politics.
La Nouvelle Série was finally published on 26 February 1877 (see 1877 in poetry), Hugo's sixty-fifth birthday. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 laptop keyboard
Most of the contents date from 1859 and 1875–1877, and the events of the 1870s make themselves felt: the Paris Commune, the fall of Napoleon III, and the beginnings of the Third Republic. HP G72-b60SF laptop keyboard
The collection closes with the formidable Abîme, a vertiginous dialogue between Man, Earth, Sun, and Stars, playing on the numberless steps leading to an infinity behind which stands God, and placing human beings, with all their pettiness, face to face with the Universe. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5282 laptop keyboard
The New Series had been advertised with the following message: « Le complément de la Légende des siècles sera prochainement publié, à moins que la fin de l'auteur n'arrive avant la fin du livre. » ("The conclusion to the Legend will be published shortly, provided that it is not preceded by the conclusion to the author.") HP G42-461TU laptop keyboard
On 9 June 1883 the fifth and last tome of La Légende des Siècles was published with the subtitle série complémentaire (see 1883 in poetry). Critics who claimed that the "anticlericalism" and "glibness" were evidence of the bitterness of age were mistaken: HP Mini 210-1080CA laptop keyboard
in fact, Hugo's cerebral edema of June 1878 had already essentially put an end to his work as a writer, and most of the contents dated from long before. It is probable, but not certain, that he had intended to write new poems. HP 530580-001 laptop keyboard
For example, La Vision de Dante (written in 1853) was initially intended for Châtiments, and Les Quatre Jours d'Elciis (written in 1857) was bumped forward from both the First and the New Series, the prologue dating from perhaps 1880. Compaq Presario CQ71-403SA laptop keyboard
This assemblage of poems with little narrative drive, alternating dark and bright visions, gives the impression of a contemplative and intemporal epilogue, very different from what came before.
In September 1883, several months after the appearance of the Last Series, Compaq Presario CQ71-235SA laptop keyboard
a "complete" edition was issued in which the three series are mixed together and reorganised according to a more or less chronological plan.
No one is entirely sure how close this comes to Hugo's original vision. It is not impossible that Hugo, physically and intellectually enfeebled, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
and greatly affected by the death of Juliette Drouet, allowed himself to be overly influenced by friends and by the executors of his estate. The rearrangement, which tries to make things easier for the reader by alternating long and short poems, and poems with different moods, has the effect of erasing the internal logic; in particular, HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
the references to current affairs that are found in the New Series are dispersed. Additionally, it introduces bizarreries of chronology: Greek mythology is depicted after Jesus Christ, and El Cid appears before Muhammad. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
Finally, it often gives the reader the erroneous impression that this final fusion was what Hugo originally intended, as though the original appearance in "series" were a historical accident. Nevertheless, most modern editions adopt this arrangement for the sake of simplicity. ACER TravelMate 290 Laptop Keyboard
Republicanism is the ideology of governing a society or state as a republic (la. res publica), where the head of state is a representative of the people who hold popular sovereignty rather than the people being subjects of the head of state. The head of state is typically appointed by means other than heredity, often through elections. Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
The exact meaning of republicanism varies depending on the cultural and historical context. In general it implies the absence of monarchy, but it may indicate anything from 'rule by many people and by law', through oligarchy, DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard
to arbitrary rule by one person. Republicanism existed as an identifiable movement in the Roman Republic, where the founder of the Republic, Lucius Junius Brutus, denounced the former Roman Kingdom and had the Roman people declare a solemn oath to never allow a monarchy to return again.[1] SONY VGN-FE21M Laptop Keyboard
In Ancient Greece, several philosophers and historians analysed and described elements we now recognize as classical republicanism. Some scholars have translated the Greek concept of "politeia" as "republic," but most modern scholars reject this idea. ACER TravelMate 2501LC Laptop Keyboard
There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term "republic." However, most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle, and Polybius. These include theories of mixed government and of civic virtue. SONY 148084122 Laptop Keyboard
For example, Plato's dialogue on the ideal state, The Republic, (although misnamed by the standards of modern political theory) places great emphasis on the importance of civic virtue (aiming for the good of the whole city) together with personal virtue ('just man') ASUS F6VE Laptop Keyboard
on the part of the ideal rulers, modeled after the character of his teacher, Socrates. Indeed in the famous passage in Book V, Plato assets that until rulers have the nature of philosophers (Socrates) or philosophers become the rulers, there will be no civic peace or happiness.[citation needed] HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard
A number of Ancient Greek states such as Athens and Sparta have been classified as "classical republics", because they featured extensive participation by the citizens in legislation and political decision-making. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
Aristotle considered Carthage to have been a republic as it had a political system similar to that of some of the Greek cities, notably Sparta, but avoided some of the defects that affected them (e.g., the Spartan common meal without any state subsidy, which undermined the ostensible purpose of the practice). ACER Aspire 7741G Laptop Keyboard
Both Livy (in Latin, living in Augustus' time) and Plutarch (in Greek, a century later), described how Rome had developed its legislation, notably the transition from a kingdom to a republic, by following the example of the Greeks. HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
Some of this history, composed more than 500 years after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, may be fictitious reconstruction - nonetheless the influence of Greek ideas on governance is evident in the organisation of the Roman Republic. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Greek historian Polybius, writing more than a century before Livy, became one of the first to describe the emergence of the Roman Republic. Polybius exerted a great influence on Cicero as he wrote his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BC. In one of these works, De re publica, Cicero linked the Roman concept of res publica to the Greek politeia".DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
However, the modern term "republic", despite its derivation, is not synonymous with the Roman res publica. Among the several meanings of the term res publica, it is most often translated "republic" where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state, and its form of government, between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors. SONY 148084122 Laptop Keyboard
This Roman Republic would, by a modern understanding of the word, still be defined as a true republic, even if not coinciding entirely. Thus, Enlightenment philosophers saw the Roman Republic as an ideal system, DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
because it included features like a systematic separation of powers. However, like most of the classical world, it also depended on slave labor, which would taint it in modern eyes.
Romans still called their state "Res Publica" in the era of the early emperors because, ACER V104730BS1 Laptop Keyboard
on the surface, the organization of the state had been preserved by the first emperors without significant alteration. Several offices from the republican era, held by individuals, were combined under the control of a single person. These changes became permanent, and gradually conferred sovereignty on the Emperor. HP CT1A Laptop Keyboard
Cicero's description of the ideal state, in De re publica, does not equate to a modern day "republic"; it is more like enlightened absolutism. His philosophical works were influential when Enlightenment philosophers such as Voltaire developed their political concepts. HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
In its classical meaning, a republic was any stable well-governed political community. Both Plato and Aristotle identified three forms of government:democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. However, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
mixed government was considered ideal. First Plato and Aristotle, and then Polybius and Cicero, developed the notion that the ideal republic is a mixture of these three forms of government. The writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion. HP COMPAQ NX6325 Laptop Keyboard
Cicero expressed reservations concerning the republican form of government. While in his theoretical works he defended monarchy, or at least a mixed monarchy/oligarchy, in his own political life, he generally opposed men, like Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Octavian, TOSHIBA G83C0003G110 laptop keyboard
who were trying to realise such ideals. Eventually, that opposition led to his death and Cicero can be seen as a victim of his own republican ideals.
Tacitus, a contemporary of Plutarch, was not concerned with whether a form of government could be analysed as a "republic" or a "monarchy".[2] HP Pavilion dv6-3230us laptop keyboard
He analyzed how the powers accumulated by the early Julio-Claudian dynasty were all given by a State that was still notionally a republic. Nor was the Roman Republic "forced" to give away these powers: it did so freely and reasonably, certainly in Augustus' case, because of his many services to the state, freeing it from civil wars and disorder. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
Tacitus was one of the first to ask whether such powers were given to the head of state because the citizens wanted to give them, or whether they were given for other reasons (for example, because one had a deified ancestor). DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
The latter case led more easily to abuses of power. In Tacitus' opinion, the trend away from a true republic was irreversible only when Tiberius established power, shortly after Augustus' death in AD 14 (much later than most historians place the start of the Imperial form of government in Rome). By this time, too many principles defining some powers as "untouchable" had been implemented.[3] SONY VGN-FE21M laptop keyboard
In Europe, republicanism was revived in the late Middle Ages when a number of states, which arose from medieval communes, embraced a republican system of government. These were generally small but wealthy trading states in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. SONY 148084122 laptop keyboard
Haakonssen notes that by the Renaissance, Europe was divided, such that those states controlled by a landed elite were monarchies, and those controlled by a commercial elite were republics. The latter included the Italian city states of Florence, Genoa, and Venice and members of the Hanseatic League. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
Building upon concepts of medieval feudalism, Renaissance scholars used the ideas of the ancient world to advance their view of an ideal government. Thus the republicanism developed during the Renaissance is known as 'classical republicanism' because it relied on classical models. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
This terminology was developed by Zera Fink in the 1960s but some modern scholars, such as Brugger, consider it confuses the "classical republic" with the system of government used in the ancient world. 'Early modern republicanism' has been proposed as an alternative term. It is also sometimes called civic humanism. SONY Vaio VGN-AW310J laptop keyboard
Beyond simply a non-monarchy, early modern thinkers conceived of an ideal republic, in which mixed government was an important element, and the notion that virtue and the common good were central to good government. Lenovo ThinkPad T400S-2815 laptop keyboard
Republicanism also developed its own distinct view of liberty.
Renaissance authors who spoke highly of republics were rarely critical of monarchies. While Niccolò Machiavelli's Discourses on Livy is the period's key work on republics, he also wrote The Prince on how best to run a monarchy. HP AELX6U00210 laptop keyboard
The early modern writers did not see the republican model as universally applicable; most thought that it could be successful only in very small and highly urbanized city-states. Jean Bodin in Six Books of the Commonwealth (fr)identified monarchy with republic.[clarification needed] TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
Classical writers like Tacitus, and Renaissance writers like Machiavelli, tried to avoid an outspoken preference for one government system or another. Enlightenment philosophers, on the other hand, expressed a clear opinion. SONY VAIO VGN-FS760/W laptop keyboard
Thomas More, writing before the Age of Enlightenment, was too outspoken for the reigning king's taste, even though he coded his political preferences in a Utopian allegory.
In England a type of republicanism evolved that was not wholly opposed to monarchy; thinkers such as Thomas More and Sir Thomas Smith saw a monarchy, firmly constrained by law, as compatible with republicanism. ACER V104730BS1 laptop keyboard
Anti-monarchism became more strident in the Dutch Republic during and after the Eighty Years' War, which began in 1568. This anti-monarchism was more propaganda than a political philosophy; most of the anti-monarchist works appeared in the form of widely distributed pamphlets. This evolved into a systematic critique of monarchy, ACER Aspire 7751G laptop keyboard
written by men such as Johan Uytenhage de Mist, Radboud Herman Scheel, Lieven de Beaufort and the brothers Johan andPeter de la Court. These writers saw all monarchies as illegitimate tyrannies that were inherently corrupt. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
These authors were more concerned with preventing the position of Stadholder from evolving into a monarchy, than with attacking their former rulers. Dutch republicanism also influenced on French Huguenots during the Wars of Religion. In the other states of early modern Europe republicanism was more moderate. TOSHIBA PK130BH2A00 laptop keyboard
Oliver Cromwell set up a republic called the Commonwealth of England (1649–1660) and ruled as a near dictator after the overthrow of King Charles I.James Harrington was then a leading philosopher of republicanism. TOSHIBA MP-09K53US6698 laptop keyboard
The collapse of the Commonwealth of England in 1660 and the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II discredited republicanism among England's ruling circles. However they welcomed the liberalism, and emphasis on rights, Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard
of John Locke, which played a major role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Even so, republicanism flourished in the "country" party of the early 18th century, which denounced the corruption of the "court" party, producing a political theory that heavily influenced the American colonists. ACER Aspire 4810TZ-4011 Laptop Keyboard
In general the English ruling classes of the 18th century vehemently opposed republicanism, typified by the attacks on John Wilkes, and especially on the American Revolution and theFrench Revolution.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-FS760/W laptop keyboard
In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth republicanism was an influential ideology. After the establishment of the Commonwealth of Two Nations, republicans supported the status quo, of having a very weak monarch, SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
and opposed those who thought a stronger monarchy was needed. These mostly Polish republicans, such as Łukasz Górnicki, Andrzej Wolan, and Stanisław Konarski, were well read in classical and Renaissance texts and firmly believed that their state was a republic on the Roman model, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
and started to call their state the Rzeczpospolita. Atypically, Polish-Lithuanian republicanism was not the ideology of the commercial class, but rather of the landed aristocracy, which would lose power if the monarchy were expanded. This resulted in an oligarchy of the greatmagnates. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
French and Swiss Enlightenment thinkers, such as Montesquieu and later Rousseau, expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic should be: some of their new ideas were scarcely traceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Concepts they contributed, HP G42-265LA laptop keyboard
or heavily elaborated, were social contract, positive law, and mixed government. They also borrowed from, and distinguished republicanism from, the ideas of liberalism that were developing at the same time. DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
Liberalism and republicanism were frequently conflated during this period, because they were both opposed to absolute monarchy. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. TOSHIBA V114302CS1 US laptop keyboard
An important distinction is that, while republicanism continued to stress the importance of civic virtue and the common good, liberalism was based on economics and individualism. It is clearest in the matter of private property which, according to some, may be maintained only under protection of established positive law. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X301 laptop keyboard
Jules Ferry, Prime Minister of France from 1880 to 1885, followed both these schools of thought and eventually enacted the Ferry Laws which were intended to overturn the Falloux Laws, by embracing the anti-clerical thinking of the Philosophs. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21Z laptop keyboard
These laws ended the Catholic Church's involvement with many government institutions in late 19th-century France, including schools.
In the history of French politics, republicanism has faced many challenges. There were those who claimed to be republicans but who in actual practice promoted rule by a minority (sometimes a minority of one), SONY VAIO VGN-NR21S/S laptop keyboard
including those Jacobins responsible for the Great Terror, and the emperors Napoleon I and Napoleon III; the imposition of monarchies in 1815 and 1830; the threat of dictatorship in the 1880s; the proto-fascism of the Vichy regime in 1940–44; the threatened coups of 1957 and 1968. But the republican system has survived in France.[5] SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
In recent years a debate has developed over the role of republicanism in the American Revolution and in the British radicalism of the 18th century. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard [6]
The new interpretations were pioneered by J.G.A. Pocock who argued in The Machiavellian Moment (1975) that, at least in the early 18th century, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pocock's view is now widely accepted.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-CR41S laptop keyboard
Bernard Bailyn and Gordon Wood pioneered the argument that the American founding fathers were more influenced by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University professor Isaac Kramnick, on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean.[8] HP Mini 210-2002er laptop keyboard
In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and political leaders of the colonies studied history intently, looking for models of good government. They especially followed the development of republican ideas in England.[9] Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:[10] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, John Milton, James Harrington and Sidney, Trenchard, Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far as Montesquieu, formed the authoritative literature of this culture; SONY VAIO VGN-FW11S laptop keyboard
and its values and concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the personality was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, HP Pavilion dv6-3134nr laptop keyboard
faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia), established churches (opposed to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion) and the promotion of a monied interest — though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies of settlement. COMPAQ Presario CQ61-300 laptop keyboard
A neoclassical politics provided both the ethos of the elites and the rhetoric of the upwardly mobile, and accounts for the singular cultural and intellectual homogeneity of the Founding Fathers and their generation. HP Mini 110-1197TU laptop keyboard
The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made the American Revolution inevitable. Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and as a threat to the established liberties the Americans enjoyed.[11]
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By abandoning English constitutionalism and creating a new republic based on the rights of the individual, the North Americans introduced a new force in the world. Ideas spread most rapidly when they have found adequate concrete expression. Thus republicanism entered our Romanic/Germanic world.... Up to this point, GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard
the conviction had prevailed in Europe that monarchy best served the interests of the nation. Now the idea spread that the nation should govern itself. But only after a state had actually been formed on the basis of the theory of representation did the full significance of this idea become clear. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
All later revolutionary movements have this same goal... This was the complete reversal of a principle. Until then, a king who ruled by the grace of God had been the center around which everything turned. Now the idea emerged that power should come from below.... HP Mini 210-1064TU Laptop Keyboard
These two principles are like two opposite poles, and it is the conflict between them that determines the course of the modern world. In Europe the conflict between them had not yet taken on concrete form; with the French Revolution it did. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
Republicanism, especially that of Rousseau, played a central role in the French Revolution and foreshadowed modern republicanism. The revolutionaries, after overthrowing the French monarchy in the 1790s, DELL XPS M1530 Laptop Keyboard
began by setting up a republic; Napoleon converted it into an Empire with a new aristocracy. In the 1830s Belgium adopted some of the innovations of the progressive political philosophers of the Enlightenment. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Républicanisme is a French version of modern republicanism. It is a form of social contract, deduced from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's idea of a general will. Ideally, each citizen is engaged in a direct relationship with the state, removing the need for identity politics based on local, religious, or racial identification. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Républicanisme, in theory, makes anti-discrimination laws unnecessary, but some critics argue that colour-blind laws serve to perpetuate discrimination.[13]
Radicalism arose in European states in the 19th century. All 19th century radicals supported a constitutional republic and universal suffrage, while European liberals were at the time in favor of constitutional monarchy and census suffrage. SONY VAIO VGN-NR11M/S Laptop Keyboard
Most radical parties later favored economic liberalism andcapitalism. This distinction between radicalism and liberalism had not totally disappeared in the 20th century, although many radicals simply joined liberal parties. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard
For example, the Radical Party of the Left in France or the (originally Italian) Transnational Radical Party, which exist today, are more focussed on republicanism than on simple liberalism.
Liberalism, ASUS F3H Laptop Keyboard
was represented in France by the Orleanists who rallied to the Third Republic only in the late 19th century, after the comte de Chambord's 1883 death and the 1891 papal encyclical Rerum Novarum. Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
But the early Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party in France, and Chartism in Britain, were closer to republicanism, and the left-wing. Radicalism remained close to republicanism in the 20th century, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
at least in France, where they governed several times with other left-wing parties (participating in both the Cartel des gauches coalitions as well as the Popular Front).
Discredited after the Second World War, HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
French radicals split into a left-wing party – the Radical Party of the Left, an associate of the Socialist Party– and the Radical Party "valoisien",GATEWAY NX570X Laptop Keyboard
an associate party of the conservative Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) and its Gaullist predecessors. Italian radicals also maintained close links with republicanism, as well as with socialism, with the Partito radicale founded in 1955, which became theTransnational Radical Party in 1989.
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Republicanism is a system that replaces or accompanies inherited rule. There is an emphasis on liberty, and a rejection of corruption.[20] It strongly influenced American Revolution and the French Revolution in the 1770s and 1790s, FUJITSU CP228900-01 Laptop Keyboard
respectively.[4] Republicans, in these two examples, tended to reject inherited elites and aristocracies, but two questions were left open: whether a republic, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an unelected upper chamber, TOSHIBA A000014900 laptop keyboard
with members perhaps being appointed meritorious experts, and whether it should have a constitutional monarch.[21]
Although conceptually separate from democracy, republicanism included the key principles of rule by the consent of the governed and sovereignty of the people. In effect republicanism held that kings and aristocracies were not the real rulers, HP 441541-001 laptop keyboard
but rather the whole people were. Exactly how the people were to rule was an issue of democracy – republicanism itself did not specify how.[22] In the United States, the solution was the creation of political parties that reflected the votes of the people, HP Pavilion dv3-2157cl laptop keyboard
and which controlled the government (see Republicanism in the United States). Many exponents of republicanism, such asBenjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson were strong promoters of representative democracy.[citation needed]However, Lenovo 45N2071 laptop keyboard
other supporters of republicanism, such as John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, were more distrustful of majority rule and sought a government with more power for elites.[citation needed] There were similar debates in many other democratizingnations.[23] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct orrepresentative.[24] Today the term republic usually refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, who serves for a limited term; DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies, with an elected or appointed head of government such as aprime minister.[25] HP HDX18-1100 CTO laptop keyboard
The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy; James Madison argued that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5172LM laptop keyboard
whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.[26] What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government should be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend."[27] HP Pavilion dv6-3133nr laptop keyboard
Some countries (such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Scandinavian countries, and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional ones with limited, or eventually merely symbolic, SONY VAIO VGN-NR11M/S laptop keyboard
powers. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system, whether or not they were replaced with democratic institutions (such as in the US, France, China, Iran, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, Turkey and Egypt). Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
In Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Papua New Guinea, and some other countries the monarch, or its representative, is given supreme executive power, but by convention acts only on the advice of his or her ministers. Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
the members of which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these houses lost power (as the UK House of Lords), or else became elective and remained powerful (as the US Senate).[28][29]
Freethought or free thought is a philosophical viewpoint which holds that positions regarding truth should be formed on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism, HP Pavilion dv5-1002au laptop keyboard
rather than authority, tradition, or other dogmas.[1][2][3]The cognitive application of freethought is known as "freethinking", and practitioners of freethought are known as "freethinkers".[1][4]
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Thus, freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts, scientific inquiry, and logicalprinciples, independent of any logical fallacies or the intellectually limiting effects of authority, confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
prejudice, sectarianism, tradition, urban legend, and all other dogmas. Regarding religion, freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to support the existence of supernatural phenomena.[5] HP Pavilion dv3z-1000 Laptop Keyboard
A line from "Clifford's Credo" by the 19th-century British mathematician and philosopher William Kingdon Cliffordperhaps best describes the premise of freethought: "It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence." IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51 1833 Laptop Keyboard
Critical thought has flourished in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, in the repositories of knowledge and wisdom inIreland and the Iranian civilizations (e.g., Khayyam and his unorthodox Sufi Rubaiyat poems), and in other civilizations, as the Chinese, HP HDX18-1000EO Laptop Keyboard
(e.g., the seafaring Southern Sòng's renaissance),[7] and on through heretical thinkers of esoteric alchemy or astrology, to the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation.
French physician and writer Rabelais celebrated "rabelaisian" Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
freedom as well as good feasting and drinking (an expression and a symbol of freedom of the mind) in defiance of the hypocrisies of conformist orthodoxy in his utopian Thelema Abbey (from θέλημα: free "will"), the devise of which was Do What Thou Wilt: HP G71-448CL Laptop Keyboard
"So had Gargantua established it. In all their rule and strictest tie of their order there was but this one clause to be observed, Do What Thou Wilt; because free people ... act virtuously and avoid vice. They call this honor." SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard
When the hero of his book, Pantagruel, journeys to the "Oracle of The Div(in)e Bottle", he learns the lesson of life in one simple word: "Trinch!", Drink! Enjoy the simple life, learn wisdom and knowledge, as a free human. Beyond puns, irony, and satire, HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
Gargantua's prologue metaphor instructs the reader to "break the bone and suck out the substance-full marrow" ("la substantifique moëlle"), the core of wisdom.
In Germany, during the period (1815–1848) and before the March Revolution, the resistance of citizens against the dogma of the church increased. Lenovo Thinkpad T420S Keyboard
In 1844, under the influence of Johannes Ronge and Robert Blum, belief in the rights of man, tolerance among men, and humanism grew, and by 1859 they had established the Bund Freireligiöser Gemeinden Deutschlands (Union of Secular Communities in Germany). HP 381068-001 Laptop Keyboard
This union still exists today, and is included as a member in the umbrella organization of free humanists. In 1881 in Frankfurt am Main, Ludwig Büchner established Deutscher Freidenkerbund (German Freethinkers League) as the first German organization for atheists. FUJITSU CP228900-01 Laptop Keyboard
In 1892 the Freidenker-Gesellschaft and in 1906 the Deutscher Monistenbund were formed.[9] Freethought organizations developed "Jugendweihe", secular "confirmation" ceremonies, and atheist funeral rites.[9][10] HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
The Union of Freethinkers for Cremation was founded in 1905, and the Central Union of German Proletariat Freethinker in 1908. The two groups merged in 1927, becoming the German Freethinking Association in 1930.[11] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
More "bourgeois" organizations declined after World War I, and "proletarian" Freethought groups proliferated, becoming an organization of socialist parties.[9][12] European socialist freethought groups formed the International of Proletarian Freethinkers (IPF) in 1925.[13] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50e-1870 laptop keyboard
Activists agitated for Germans to disaffiliate from the Church and for secularization of elementary schools; between 1919–21 and 1930–32 more than 2.5 million Germans, for the most part supporters of the Social Democratic and Communist parties, TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 laptop keyboard
gave up church membership.[14] Conflict developed between radical forces including the Soviet League of the Militant Godless and Social Democratic forces in Western Europe led by Theodor Hartwig and Max Sievers.[13] In 1930 the Soviet and allied delegations, following a walk-out, took over the IPF and excluded the former leaders.[13] HP Pavilion DV6z-1200 CTO laptop keyboard
Following Hitler's rise to power in 1933, most freethought organizations were banned, though some right-wing groups that worked with Völkisch associations were tolerated by the Nazis until the mid-1930s.[9][12] SONY VAIO VGN-CS21S/W laptop keyboard
In the Netherlands, freethought has existed in organized form since the establishment of De Dageraad (now known as de Vrije Gedachte) in 1856. Among its most notable subscribing 19th century individuals were Johannes van Vloten, Multatuli, Adriaan Gerhard and Domela Nieuwenhuis. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
In 2009, Frans van Dongen established the Atheist-Secular Party, which takes a considerably restrictive view of religion and public religious expressions.
Since the 19th century, Freethought in the Netherlands has become more well known as a political phenomenon through at least three currents: HP Pavilion dv6-2155dx laptop keyboard
liberal freethinking, conservative freethinking, and classical freethinking. In other words, parties which identify as freethinking tend to favor non-doctrinal, rational approaches to their preferred ideologies, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
and arose as secular alternatives to both clerically aligned parties as well as labor-aligned parties. Common themes among freethinking political parties are "freedom", "liberty", and "individualism".HP Pavilion dv4-1240tx laptop keyboard
The Free Thought movement was first organized in the United States as the “Free Press Association” in 1827 in defense of George Houston, publisher of The Correspondent, an early journal of Biblical criticism in an era when blasphemy convictions were still possible. Houston had helped found an Owenitecommunity at Haverstraw, New York in 1826–27. SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
The short-lived Correspondent was superseded by the Free Enquirer, the official organ of Robert Owen's New Harmony community in Indiana, edited by Robert Dale Owen and Fanny Wright between 1828 and 1832 in New York. SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
During this time Robert Dale Owen sought to introduce the philosophic skepticism of the Free Thought movement into the Workingmen’s Party in New York city. The Free enquirers annual civic celebrations of Paine’s birthday after 1825 finally coalesced in 1836 in the first national Free Thinkers organization, HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
the “United States Moral and Philosophical Society for the General Diffusion of Useful Knowledge”. It was founded on August 1, 1836, at a national convention at the Lyceum in Saratoga Springs, with Isaac S. Smith of Buffalo, New York, SONY VAIO VGN-SZ640 laptop keyboard
as president. He was also the 1836 Equal Rights Party’s candidate for Governor of New York. Smith had also been the Workingmen's Party candidate for Lt. Governor of New York in 1830. The Moral and Philosophical Society published The Beacon, edited by Gilbert Vale.[15] TOSHIBA Satellite A135-S4447 laptop keyboard
Driven by the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the 19th century saw an immigration of German freethinkers and anti-clericalists to the United States (see Forty-Eighters). In the United States, they hoped to be able to live by their principles, without interference from government and church authorities.[17] HP G42-475TU laptop keyboard
Many Freethinkers settled in German immigrant strongholds, including St. Louis, Indianapolis, Wisconsin, and Texas, where they founded the town of Comfort, Texas, as well as others.[17]
These groups of German Freethinkers referred to their organizations as Freie Gemeinden, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
or "free congregations".[17]The first Freie Gemeinde was established in St. Louis in 1850.[18] Others followed in Pennsylvania, California, Washington, D.C., New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Texas, and other states.[17][18]
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· Freethought in the United States began to decline in the late nineteenth century. Its anti-religious views alienated would-be sympathizers. The movement also lacked cohesive goals or beliefs. By the early twentieth century, most Freethought Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
congregations had disbanded or joined other mainstream churches. The longest continuously operating Freethought congregation in America is the Free Congregation of Sauk County, Wisconsin, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
which was founded in 1852 and is still active today. It affiliated with the American Unitarian Association (now the Unitarian Universalist Association) in 1955.[19] D. M. Bennett was the founder and publisher of The Truth Seeker in 1873, a radical freethought and reform American periodical. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
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Victor Marie Hugo (French pronunciation: [viktɔʁ maʁi yɡo]; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best known French writers. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ220 laptop keyboard
In France, Hugo's literary fame comes first from his poetry but also rests upon his novels and his dramatic achievements. Among many volumes of poetry, Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles stand particularly high in critical esteem. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables, 1862, andNotre-Dame de Paris, 1831 (known in English as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame).
Though a committed royalist when he was young, Hugo's views changed as the decades passed;[1] he became a passionate supporter of republicanism,[citation needed] and his work touches upon most of the political and social issues and artistic trends of his time. He was buried in the Panthéon. HP Pavilion dv6-2119tx laptop keyboard
Hugo was the third son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo (1774–1828) and Sophie Trébuchet (1772–1821); his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo (1798–1855) and Eugène Hugo (1800–1837). He was born in 1802 in Besançon Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
(in the region of Franche-Comté). Hugo was a freethinking republican who considered Napoléon a hero; his mother was a Catholic Royalist who is believed[by whom?] to have taken as her lover General Victor Lahorie, who was executed in 1812 for plotting against Napoléon. Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 laptop keyboard
Hugo's childhood was a period of national political turmoil. Napoléon was proclaimed Emperor two years after Hugo's birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his eighteenth birthday. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
The opposing political and religious views of Hugo's parents reflected the forces that would battle for supremacy in France throughout his life: Hugo's father was a high-ranked officer in Napoleon's army until he failed in Spain (one of the reasons why his name is not present on the Arc de Triomphe). Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
Since Hugo's father was an officer, the family moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On a childhood family trip to Naples, Hugo saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean, and Rome during its festivities. SONY Vaio VGN-AW Laptop Keyboard
[original research?] Though he was only five years old at the time, he remembered the six-month-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris. HP Pavilion DV1000 Laptop Keyboard
At the beginning of her marriage, Hugo's mother Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy (where Léopold served as a governor of a province near Naples) and Spain (where he took charge of three Spanish provinces). SONY VGN-FE31M Laptop Keyboard
Weary of the constant moving required by military life, and at odds with her husband's lack of Catholic beliefs, Sophie separated temporarily from Léopold in 1803 and settled in Paris with her children. Thereafter she dominated Hugo's education and upbringing. As a result, Hugo's early work in poetry and fiction reflect her passionate devotion to both King and Faith. HP 634139-001 Laptop Keyboard
It was only later, during the events leading up to France's 1848 Revolution, that he would begin to rebel against his Catholic Royalist education and instead champion Republicanism and Freethought. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Young Victor fell in love and against his mother's wishes became secretly engaged to his childhood friend Adèle Foucher (1803–1868). Because of his close relationship to his mother, Hugo waited until after his mother's death (in 1821) to marry Adèle in 1822. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, but the boy died in infancy. The following year, on 28 August 1824, the couple's second child, Léopoldine was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard
and Adèle on 24 August 1830.
He wrote many poems afterwards about his daughter's life and death, and at least one biographer claims he never completely recovered from it. His most famous poem is probably Demain, dès l'aube, in which he describes visiting her grave. ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard
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Hugo decided to live in exile after Napoleon III's Coup d'état at the end of 1851. After leaving France, Hugo lived in Brussels briefly in 1851 before moving to the Channel Islands, first to Jersey (1852-1855) and then to the smaller island of Guernsey in 1855, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
where he stayed until 1870. Although Napoleon III proclaimed a general amnesty in 1859, under which Hugo could have safely returned to France, the author stayed in exile, only returning when Napoleon III was forced from power as a result of the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. After the Siege of Paris, FUJITSU CP270342-02 Laptop Keyboard
Hugo lived again in Guernsey from 1872-73 before finally returning to France for the remainder of his life.
Hugo published his first novel the year following his marriage (Han d'Islande, 1823), and his second three years later (Bug-Jargal, 1826). HP Pavilion dv6-2119tx Laptop Keyboard
Between 1829 and 1840 he would publish five more volumes of poetry (Les Orientales, 1829;Les Feuilles d'automne, 1831; Les Chants du crépuscule, 1835; Les Voix intérieures, 1837; and Les Rayons et les ombres, 1840), cementing his reputation as one of the greatest elegiac and lyric poets of his time. DELL Vostro 3450 laptop keyboard
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Like many young writers of his generation, Hugo was profoundly influenced by François-René de Chateaubriand, the famous figure in the literary movement of Romanticism and France's preeminent literary figure during the early 19th century. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21Z laptop keyboard
In his youth, Hugo resolved to be "Chateaubriand or nothing," and his life would come to parallel that of his predecessor in many ways. Like Chateaubriand, Hugo would further the cause of Romanticism, become involved in politics (though mostly as a champion of Republicanism), and be forced into exile due to his political stances. SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
The precocious passion and eloquence of Hugo's early work brought success and fame at an early age. His first collection of poetry (Odes et poésies diverses) was published in 1822, when Hugo was only twenty years old, and earned him a royal pension from Louis XVIII. Though the poems were admired for their spontaneous fervor and fluency, ACER Extensa 5635Z laptop keyboard
it was the collection that followed four years later in 1826 (Odes et Ballades) that revealed Hugo to be a great poet, a natural master of lyric and creative song.
Victor Hugo's first mature work of fiction appeared in 1829, SONY Vaio VGN-AW190 laptop keyboard
and reflected the acute social conscience that would infuse his later work. Le Dernier jour d'un condamné (The Last Day of a Condemned Man) would have a profound influence on later writers such as Albert Camus, Charles Dickens, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. ACER Aspire 5738ZG laptop keyboard
Claude Gueux, a documentary short story about a real-life murderer who had been executed in France, appeared in 1834, and was later considered by Hugo himself to be a precursor to his great work on social injustice, Les Misérables. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
Hugo's novel Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of Notre-Dame) was published in 1831 and quickly translated into other languages across Europe. One of the effects of the novel was to shame the City of Paris into restoring the much-neglected Cathedral of Notre Dame, HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard
which was attracting thousands of tourists who had read the popular novel. The book also inspired a renewed appreciation for pre-Renaissance buildings, which thereafter began to be actively preserved. DELL Vostro 3450 laptop keyboard
Hugo began planning a major novel about social misery and injustice as early as the 1830s, but it would take a full 17 years for Les Misérables to be realized and finally published in 1862. Hugo was acutely aware of the quality of the novel and publication of the work went to the highest bidder. TOSHIBA Satellite L670-117 laptop keyboard
The Belgian publishing house Lacroix and Verboeckhoven undertook a marketing campaign unusual for the time, issuing press releases about the work a full six months before the launch. It also initially published only the first part of the novel ("Fantine"), which was launched simultaneously in major cities. Installments of the book sold out within hours, and had enormous impact on French society. SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard
The critical establishment was generally hostile to the novel; Taine found it insincere, Barbey d'Aurevilly complained of its vulgarity, Gustave Flaubert found within it "neither truth nor greatness", the Goncourts lambasted its artificiality, HP Pavilion DV7-3186cl laptop keyboard
and Baudelaire – despite giving favorable reviews in newspapers – castigated it in private as "tasteless and inept". Les Misérables proved popular enough with the masses that the issues it highlighted were soon on the agenda of the National Assembly of France. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
Today the novel remains his most enduringly popular work. It is popular worldwide, and has been adapted for cinema, television and stage shows.
The shortest correspondence in history is said to have been between Hugo and his publisher Hurst and Blackett in 1862. HP Pavilion DV7-3100 laptop keyboard
Hugo was on vacation when Les Misérables was published. He queried the reaction to the work by sending a single-character telegram to his publisher, asking "?". The publisher replied with a single "!" to indicate its success.[3] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
Hugo turned away from social/political issues in his next novel, Les Travailleurs de la Mer (Toilers of the Sea), published in 1866. The book was well received, perhaps due to the previous success of Les Misérables. DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
Dedicated to the channel island of Guernsey where he spent 15 years of exile, Hugo tells of a man who attempts to win the approval of his beloved's father by rescuing his ship, intentionally marooned by its captain who hopes to escape with a treasure of cash it is transporting, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
through an exhausting battle of human engineering against the force of the sea and a battle against an almost mythical beast of the sea, a giant squid. Superficially an adventure, one of Hugo's biographers calls it a "metaphor for the nineteenth century–technical progress, creative genius and hard work overcoming the immanent evil of the material world."[4] Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard
The word used in Guernsey to refer to squid (pieuvre, also sometimes applied to octopus) was to enter the French language as a result of its use in the book. Hugo returned to political and social issues in his next novel, L'Homme Qui Rit (The Man Who Laughs), which was published in 1869 and painted a critical picture of the aristocracy. ACER TravelMate 3250 laptop keyboard
The novel was not as successful as his previous efforts, and Hugo himself began to comment on the growing distance between himself and literary contemporaries such as Flaubert and Émile Zola, whose realist and naturalist novels were now exceeding the popularity of his own work. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard
His last novel, Quatre-vingt-treize (Ninety-Three), published in 1874, dealt with a subject that Hugo had previously avoided: the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. Though Hugo's popularity was on the decline at the time of its publication, many now consider Ninety-Three to be a work on par with Hugo's better-known novels. SONY Vaio PCG-K215S Laptop Keyboard
After three unsuccessful attempts, Hugo was finally elected to the Académie française in 1841, solidifying his position in the world of French arts and letters. A group of French academicians, particularly Etienne de Jouy, Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
were fighting against the "romantic evolution" and had managed to delay Victor Hugo's election.[5] Thereafter he became increasingly involved in French politics.
He was elevated to the peerage by King Louis-Philippe in 1841 and entered the Higher Chamber as a pair de France, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
where he spoke against the death penalty and social injustice, and in favour of freedom of the press and self-government for Poland. However, he was also becoming more supportive of the Republican form of government and, following the 1848 Revolution and the formation of the Second Republic, was elected to the Constitutional Assembly and the Legislative Assembly. SONY VAIO VGN-N11M Laptop Keyboard
When Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) seized complete power in 1851, establishing an anti-parliamentary constitution, Hugo openly declared him a traitor to France. He relocated to Brussels, then Jersey, HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
from which he was expelled for supporting a Jersey newspaper that had criticised Queen Victoria and finally settled with his family at Hauteville House in Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, where he would live in exile from October 1855 until 1870. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
While in exile, Hugo published his famous political pamphlets against Napoleon III, Napoléon le Petit and Histoire d'un crime. The pamphlets were banned in France, but nonetheless had a strong impact there. He also composed or published some of his best work during his period in Guernsey, including Les Misérables, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard
and three widely praised collections of poetry (Les Châtiments, 1853; Les Contemplations, 1856; and La Légende des siècles, 1859).
He convinced the British government to spare the lives of six Irish people convicted of terrorist activities and his influence was credited in the removal of the death penalty from the constitutions of Geneva, Portugal andColombia.[6] HP G72-b62US Laptop Keyboard
He had also pleaded for Benito Juárez to spare the recently captured emperor Maximilian I of Mexico but to no avail. His complete archives (published by Pauvert) show also that he wrote a letter asking the USA, for the sake of their own reputation in the future, to spare John Brown's life, but the letter arrived after Brown was executed. HP 484748-001 Laptop Keyboard
Although Napoleon III granted an amnesty to all political exiles in 1859, Hugo declined, as it meant he would have to curtail his criticisms of the government. It was only after Napoleon III fell from power and the Third Republic was proclaimed that Hugo finally returned to his homeland in 1870, where he was promptly elected to the National Assembly and the Senate.
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As the siege continued, and food became ever more scarce, he wrote in his diary that he was reduced to "eating the unknown".[7]
Because of his concern for the rights of artists and copyright, he was a founding member of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale, which led to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. However HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
in Pauvert's published archives, he states strongly that "any work of art has two authors : the people who confusingly feel something, a creator who translates these feelings, and the people again who consecrate his vision of that feeling. When one of the authors dies, the rights should totally be granted back to the other, the people".HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
Hugo's religious views changed radically over the course of his life. In his youth, he identified himself as a Catholic and professed respect for Church hierarchy and authority. From there he became a non-practicing Catholic, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and increasingly expressed anti-Catholic and anti-clerical views. He frequented Spiritism during his exile (where he participated also in many séances conducted by Madame Delphine de Girardin),[8][9] and in later years settled into aRationalist Deism similar to that espoused by Voltaire. A census-taker asked Hugo in 1872 if he was a Catholic, and he replied, "No. A Freethinker".[citation needed] HP Pavilion DV6-1030ca Laptop Keyboard
After that point, Hugo never lost his antipathy towards the Catholic Church, due largely to what he saw as the Church's indifference to the plight of the working class under the oppression of the monarchy; and perhaps also due to the frequency with which Hugo's work appeared on the Church's Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Hugo counted 740 attacks on Les Misérables in the Catholic press). ASUS A6R laptop keyboard
On the deaths of his sons Charles and François-Victor, he insisted that they be buried without a crucifix or priest, and in his will made the same stipulation about his own death and funeral. However, although Hugo believed Catholic dogma to be outdated and dying, he never directly attacked the actual doctrines of the Church. HP 633183-001 laptop keyboard
Hugo's Rationalism can be found in poems such as Torquemada (1869, about religious fanaticism), The Pope (1878, anti-clerical), Religions and Religion (1880, denying the usefulness of churches) and, published posthumously, The End of Satan and God (1886 and 1891 respectively, SONY VAIO VGN-N27SH laptop keyboard
in which he represents Christianity as a griffin and Rationalism as an angel). Vincent van Gogh ascribed the saying "Religions pass away, but God remains", actually by Jules Michelet, to Hugo.[10] TOSHIBA Satellite m505-s4940 laptop keyboard
Although Hugo's many talents did not include exceptional musical ability, he nevertheless had a great impact on the music world through the inspiration that his works provided for composers of the 19th and 20th century. HP Pavilion dv6-3040er laptop keyboard
Hugo himself particularly enjoyed the music of Gluck and Weber and greatly admired Beethoven, and rather unusually for his time, he also appreciated works by composers from earlier centuries such as Palestrina and Monteverdi.[11] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard
Two famous musicians of the 19th century were friends of Hugo: Berlioz and Liszt. The latter played Beethoven in Hugo's home, and Hugo joked in a letter to a friend that thanks to Liszt's piano lessons, he learned how to play a favourite song on the piano – HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
with only one finger. Hugo also worked with composer Louise Bertin, writing the libretto for her 1836 opera La Esmeralda which was based on the character in The Hunchback of Notre Dame.[11] HP Pavilion DV6-1040ev Laptop Keyboard
Although for various reasons the opera closed soon after its fifth performance and is little known today, it has been recently enjoying a revival, both in a piano/song concert version by Liszt at the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux 2007[12] and in a full orchestral version presented in July 2008 at Le Festival de Radio France et Montpellier Languedoc-Roussillon.[13] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa Laptop Keyboard
Well over one thousand musical compositions have been inspired by Hugo's works from the 19th century until the present day. In particular, Hugo's plays, in which he rejected the rules of classical theatre in favour of romantic drama, HP G62-a10EP Laptop Keyboard
attracted the interest of many composers who adapted them into operas. More than one hundred operas are based on Hugo's works and among them are Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia (1833), Verdi's Rigoletto (1851) and Ernani(1844), and Ponchielli's La Gioconda (1876).[14] HP G42-461TU Laptop Keyboard
Hugo's novels as well as his plays have been a great source of inspiration for musicians, stirring them to create not only opera and ballet but musical theatre such as Notre-Dame de Paris and the ever-popular Les Misérables, London West End's longest running musical. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Additionally, Hugo's beautiful poems have attracted an exceptional amount of interest from musicians, and numerous melodies have been based on his poetry by composers such as Berlioz, Bizet, Fauré, Franck, Lalo, Liszt, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Rachmaninov andWagner.[14] TOSHIBA Satellite 1800-921 Laptop Keyboard
Today, Hugo's work continues to stimulate musicians to create new compositions. For example, Hugo's novel against capital punishment, The Last Day of a Condemned Man, was adapted into an opera by David Alagna, with a libretto by Frédérico Alagna and premiered by their brother, tenor Roberto Alagna, in 2007.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard
In Guernsey, every two years the Victor Hugo International Music Festival attracts a wide range of musicians and the premiere of songs specially commissioned from such composers as Guillaume Connesson, Richard Dubugnon, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Olivier Kaspar and Thierry Escaich and based on Hugo's poetry.
When Hugo returned to Paris in 1870, the country hailed him as a national hero. Despite his popularity Hugo lost his bid for reelection to the National Assembly in 1872. Within a brief period, he suffered a mild stroke, his daughter Adèle's internment in an insane asylum, and the death of his two sons. (Adèle's biography inspired the movie The Story of Adele H.) HP COMPAQ NX6325 Laptop Keyboard
His wife Adèle had died in 1868.
His faithful mistress, Juliette Drouet, died in 1883, only two years before his own death. Despite his personal loss, Hugo remained committed to the cause of political change. On 30 January 1876 Hugo was elected to the newly created Senate. The last phase of his political career was considered a failure. Hugo took on the role of a maverick and got little done in the Senate. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
Hugo suffered a mild stroke on 27 June 1878.[16][17] In February 1881 Hugo celebrated his 79th birthday. To honor the fact that he was entering his eightieth year, one of the greatest tributes to a living writer was held. HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard
The celebrations began on the 25th when Hugo was presented with a Sèvres vase, the traditional gift for sovereigns. On the 27th one of the largest parades in French history was held.
Marchers stretched from Avenue d'Eylau, where the author was living, down the Champs-Élysées, and all the way to the center of Paris. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard
The paraders marched for six hours to pass Hugo as he sat in the window at his house. Every inch and detail of the event was for Hugo; the official guides even wore cornflowers as an allusion to Fantine's song in Les Misérables. Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard
On the 28th, the city of Paris changed the name of the Avenue d'Eylau into Avenue Victor-Hugo.[18] Letters addressed to the author were from then on labelled « To Mister Victor Hugo, In his avenue, Paris ». HP 405963-001 Laptop Keyboard
Victor Hugo's death from pneumonia on 22 May 1885, at the age of 83, generated intense national mourning. He was not only revered as a towering figure in literature, he was a statesman who shaped the Third Republic and democracy in France. HP 405963-001 Laptop Keyboard
More than two million people joined his funeral procession in Paris from the Arc de Triomphe to the Panthéon, where he was buried. He shares a crypt within the Panthéon with Alexandre Dumas and Émile Zola. Most large French towns and cities have a street named after him. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Hugo produced more than 4000 drawings. Originally pursued as a casual hobby, drawing became more important to Hugo shortly before his exile, when he made the decision to stop writing in order to devote himself to politics. Drawing became his exclusive creative outlet during the period 1848–1851. SONY VAIO VGN-AW11S/B Laptop Keyboard
Hugo worked only on paper, and on a small scale; usually in dark brown or black pen-and-ink wash, sometimes with touches of white, and rarely with color. The surviving drawings are surprisingly accomplished and "modern" in their style and execution, foreshadowing the experimental techniques of Surrealism and Abstract Expressionism. SONY VAIO VGN-AW31ZJ laptop keyboard
He would not hesitate to use his children's stencils, ink blots, puddles and stains, lace impressions, "pliage" or folding (i.e. Rorschach blots), "grattage" or rubbing, often using the charcoal from match sticks or his fingers instead of pen or brush. HP Pavilion dv6-3106sl laptop keyboard
Sometimes he would even toss in coffee or soot to get the effects he wanted. It is reported that Hugo often drew with his left hand or without looking at the page, or during Spiritualist séances, in order to access his unconscious mind, a concept only later popularized by Sigmund Freud. TOSHIBA Satellite U300-ST3091 laptop keyboard
Hugo kept his artwork out of the public eye, fearing it would overshadow his literary work. However, he enjoyed sharing his drawings with his family and friends, often in the form of ornately handmade calling cards, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard
many of which were given as gifts to visitors when he was in political exile. DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
The people of Guernsey erected a statue by sculptor Jean Boucher in Candie Gardens (St. Peter Port) to commemorate his stay in the islands. The City of Paris has preserved his residences Hauteville House, Guernsey and 6, Place des Vosges, Paris as museums. The house where he stayed in Vianden, Luxembourg, in 1871 has also become a commemorative museum. HP Mini 110-3103sl laptop keyboard
Hugo is venerated as a saint in the Vietnamese religion of Cao Dai, being one of the only three saints recognized.[19]
The Avenue Victor-Hugo in the XVIème arrondissement of Paris bears Hugo's name, and links the Place de l'Étoile to the vicinity of the Bois de Boulogne by way of the Place Victor-Hugo. This square is served by a Paris Métro stop also named in his honor. HP 405963-001 laptop keyboard
A number of streets and avenues throughout France are likewise named after him. The school Lycée Victor Hugo was founded in his town of birth, Besançon in France. Avenue Victor-Hugo, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada, was named to honor him. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21Z laptop keyboard
In the city of Avellino, Italy, Victor Hugo lived briefly stayed in what is now known as Il Palazzo Culturale, when reuniting with his father, Leopold Sigisbert Hugo, in 1808. Hugo would later write about his brief stay here quoting "C’était un palais de marbre...". TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5163 laptop keyboard
In Havana, Cuba there is a park named after him and bust of Hugo stands near the entrance of the Old Summer Palace in Beijing.
A mosaic commemorating Victor Hugo is located on the ceiling of the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress. HP Pavilion DV7-3164cl laptop keyboard
La Légende des siècles ("The Legend of the Ages") is a collection of poems by Victor Hugo, conceived as an immense depiction of the history and evolution of humanity.
Written intermittently between 1855 and 1876, Packard Bell Easynote TK81 laptop keyboard
while the exiled Victor Hugo worked on numerous other projects, the poems were published in three series in 1859, 1877, and 1883. Bearing witness to an unparalleled poetic talent in which all Hugo's art is evident, the Légende des Siècles is often considered the only true French epic and, according to Baudelaire's formulation, the only modern epic possible. DELL Inspiron 1525 laptop keyboard
The dreaming poet contemplates the "wall of the centuries," indistinct and terrible, on which scenes of the past, present and future are drawn, and along which the whole long procession of humanity can be seen. HP G62-b36EE laptop keyboard
The poems are depictions of these scenes, fleetingly perceived and interspersed with terrifying visions. Hugo sought neither historical accuracy nor exhaustiveness; rather, he concentrated on obscure figures, usually his own inventions, HP G62-b36EE laptop keyboard
who incarnated and symbolized their eras. As he proclaimed himself in the preface to the first series, "this is history, eavesdropped upon at the door of legend." The poems, by turns lyrical, epic and satirical, HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard
form a view of the human experience, seeking less to summarize than to illustrate the history of humanity, and to bear witness to its long journey from the darkness into the light.
After Les Châtiments and Les Contemplations, his editor, Hetzel, was perturbed by the submission of La Fin de Satan and Dieu, both of which were nearly complete. HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
Seeing that Hugo was ready to proceed yet further down the metaphysical (or even eschatological) road mapped out by the final Contemplations, Hetzel became anxious at the probability of their failure with the public, SAMSUNG Q320 laptop keyboard
and preferred the sound of the Petites Epopées which Hugo had mentioned, feeling they would be more in harmony with the spirit of the times. Even though these "epics" were still no more than sketches, in March 1857 Hetzel wrote to Hugo, rejecting Fin de Satan and Dieu, but accepting with enthusiasm the Petites Epopées. DELL Inspiron 1720 laptop keyboard
This new commission was nevertheless transformed by the influence of Hugo's latest ideas and most recent works, created with the same dash and fire and in a sort of magma of inspiration: a mixture of poesy, mysticism and philosophy which is characteristic of Hugo's first decade of exile. ACER Aspire 4935 laptop keyboard
This inspiration normally led him to write a large number of poems, more or less brief, which would finally be published as components in projects which were constantly shifting and evolving. In this case Hugo integrated the little epics into his poetical system by casting them as the "human" panel in a triptych of which "God" and "Satan" were the wings, SONY VAIO PCG-FR215E Laptop Keyboard
with the implication that they were merely sparse fragments stolen from a greater epic: the whole of human experience itself. On 11 September 1857 Hugo signed a contract with Hetzel, reserving the right to alter the project's title. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
Later, Hetzel pronounced himself willing to publish La Fin de Satan and Dieu; but Hugo, perhaps conscious of the difficulties of completing either to his satisfaction, had by that time thrown himself entirely into the new project. FUJITSU CP228900-01 Laptop Keyboard
He began by taking the French Revolution as the turning point in human history, intending to use a poem entitled La Révolution as a pivot around which La Pitié Suprême or Le Verso de la page would revolve. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
More titles were written down, but some were discarded or greatly altered, and the section dealing with the 19th century coalesced as L'Océan — La Révolution — le Verso de la page — la Pitié Suprême — Les Pauvres Gens — L'épopée de l'Âne. ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard
Hetzel followed this evolution with alarm, and, fearing that the great philosophical questions would turn these little epics into towering giants, endeavoured to temper Hugo's ardour. After a serious illness in the summer of 1858, Hugo tried to reassure Hetzel by writing in a more straightforwardly narrative vein (e.g. Le Petit Roi de Galice and Zim-Zizimi), ASUS V020462CS1 laptop keyboard
and modified his plans—but retained the general ambition, which he declared in a preface. He had hit on the idea of publishing in several instalments, to give himself more time and space within which to work. The title was not decided on until a month after the manuscript's submission. With his gift for phrases, Hugo came up with La Légende des Siècles. Petites Épopées was kept as a subtitle. SONY VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q laptop keyboard
Work on the second series began immediately after the first, but Hugo was soon busy with Les Misérables and with completing La Fin de Satan and Dieu. In 1862, with the publication of Les Misérables, SONY Vaio VGN-AW120J laptop keyboard
Hugo reviewed his earlier plan and gathered together the poems already written: L'Âne, Les Sept Merveilles du Monde (a recent one), La Révolution, and La Pitié Suprême. Again, he delayed work for the sake of novels (Les travailleurs de la mer and L'Homme Qui Rit). HP Pavilion DV7-2213tx laptop keyboard
In 1870, a decisive moment came, when Hugo decided to keep La Révolution for the future collection Les Quatre Vents de l'esprit, and to fuse together La Légende, Dieu and La Fin de Satan, according to the following plan: La Fin de Satan, first book — L'Océan — Elciis — La Vision de Dante —Les Religions (from Dieu) SONY VAIO PCG-FR215E laptop keyboard
— La Pitié Suprême. Current events in the 1870s, however, saw upheavals in Hugo's life, and he was once more greatly involved in politics.
La Nouvelle Série was finally published on 26 February 1877 (see 1877 in poetry), Hugo's sixty-fifth birthday. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 laptop keyboard
Most of the contents date from 1859 and 1875–1877, and the events of the 1870s make themselves felt: the Paris Commune, the fall of Napoleon III, and the beginnings of the Third Republic. HP G72-b60SF laptop keyboard
The collection closes with the formidable Abîme, a vertiginous dialogue between Man, Earth, Sun, and Stars, playing on the numberless steps leading to an infinity behind which stands God, and placing human beings, with all their pettiness, face to face with the Universe. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5282 laptop keyboard
The New Series had been advertised with the following message: « Le complément de la Légende des siècles sera prochainement publié, à moins que la fin de l'auteur n'arrive avant la fin du livre. » ("The conclusion to the Legend will be published shortly, provided that it is not preceded by the conclusion to the author.") HP G42-461TU laptop keyboard
On 9 June 1883 the fifth and last tome of La Légende des Siècles was published with the subtitle série complémentaire (see 1883 in poetry). Critics who claimed that the "anticlericalism" and "glibness" were evidence of the bitterness of age were mistaken: HP Mini 210-1080CA laptop keyboard
in fact, Hugo's cerebral edema of June 1878 had already essentially put an end to his work as a writer, and most of the contents dated from long before. It is probable, but not certain, that he had intended to write new poems. HP 530580-001 laptop keyboard
For example, La Vision de Dante (written in 1853) was initially intended for Châtiments, and Les Quatre Jours d'Elciis (written in 1857) was bumped forward from both the First and the New Series, the prologue dating from perhaps 1880. Compaq Presario CQ71-403SA laptop keyboard
This assemblage of poems with little narrative drive, alternating dark and bright visions, gives the impression of a contemplative and intemporal epilogue, very different from what came before.
In September 1883, several months after the appearance of the Last Series, Compaq Presario CQ71-235SA laptop keyboard
a "complete" edition was issued in which the three series are mixed together and reorganised according to a more or less chronological plan.
No one is entirely sure how close this comes to Hugo's original vision. It is not impossible that Hugo, physically and intellectually enfeebled, DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
and greatly affected by the death of Juliette Drouet, allowed himself to be overly influenced by friends and by the executors of his estate. The rearrangement, which tries to make things easier for the reader by alternating long and short poems, and poems with different moods, has the effect of erasing the internal logic; in particular, HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
the references to current affairs that are found in the New Series are dispersed. Additionally, it introduces bizarreries of chronology: Greek mythology is depicted after Jesus Christ, and El Cid appears before Muhammad. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
Finally, it often gives the reader the erroneous impression that this final fusion was what Hugo originally intended, as though the original appearance in "series" were a historical accident. Nevertheless, most modern editions adopt this arrangement for the sake of simplicity. ACER TravelMate 290 Laptop Keyboard
Republicanism is the ideology of governing a society or state as a republic (la. res publica), where the head of state is a representative of the people who hold popular sovereignty rather than the people being subjects of the head of state. The head of state is typically appointed by means other than heredity, often through elections. Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard
The exact meaning of republicanism varies depending on the cultural and historical context. In general it implies the absence of monarchy, but it may indicate anything from 'rule by many people and by law', through oligarchy, DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard
to arbitrary rule by one person. Republicanism existed as an identifiable movement in the Roman Republic, where the founder of the Republic, Lucius Junius Brutus, denounced the former Roman Kingdom and had the Roman people declare a solemn oath to never allow a monarchy to return again.[1] SONY VGN-FE21M Laptop Keyboard
In Ancient Greece, several philosophers and historians analysed and described elements we now recognize as classical republicanism. Some scholars have translated the Greek concept of "politeia" as "republic," but most modern scholars reject this idea. ACER TravelMate 2501LC Laptop Keyboard
There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term "republic." However, most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle, and Polybius. These include theories of mixed government and of civic virtue. SONY 148084122 Laptop Keyboard
For example, Plato's dialogue on the ideal state, The Republic, (although misnamed by the standards of modern political theory) places great emphasis on the importance of civic virtue (aiming for the good of the whole city) together with personal virtue ('just man') ASUS F6VE Laptop Keyboard
on the part of the ideal rulers, modeled after the character of his teacher, Socrates. Indeed in the famous passage in Book V, Plato assets that until rulers have the nature of philosophers (Socrates) or philosophers become the rulers, there will be no civic peace or happiness.[citation needed] HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard
A number of Ancient Greek states such as Athens and Sparta have been classified as "classical republics", because they featured extensive participation by the citizens in legislation and political decision-making. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
Aristotle considered Carthage to have been a republic as it had a political system similar to that of some of the Greek cities, notably Sparta, but avoided some of the defects that affected them (e.g., the Spartan common meal without any state subsidy, which undermined the ostensible purpose of the practice). ACER Aspire 7741G Laptop Keyboard
Both Livy (in Latin, living in Augustus' time) and Plutarch (in Greek, a century later), described how Rome had developed its legislation, notably the transition from a kingdom to a republic, by following the example of the Greeks. HP AELX6U00210 Laptop Keyboard
Some of this history, composed more than 500 years after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, may be fictitious reconstruction - nonetheless the influence of Greek ideas on governance is evident in the organisation of the Roman Republic. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
The Greek historian Polybius, writing more than a century before Livy, became one of the first to describe the emergence of the Roman Republic. Polybius exerted a great influence on Cicero as he wrote his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BC. In one of these works, De re publica, Cicero linked the Roman concept of res publica to the Greek politeia".DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
However, the modern term "republic", despite its derivation, is not synonymous with the Roman res publica. Among the several meanings of the term res publica, it is most often translated "republic" where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state, and its form of government, between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors. SONY 148084122 Laptop Keyboard
This Roman Republic would, by a modern understanding of the word, still be defined as a true republic, even if not coinciding entirely. Thus, Enlightenment philosophers saw the Roman Republic as an ideal system, DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
because it included features like a systematic separation of powers. However, like most of the classical world, it also depended on slave labor, which would taint it in modern eyes.
Romans still called their state "Res Publica" in the era of the early emperors because, ACER V104730BS1 Laptop Keyboard
on the surface, the organization of the state had been preserved by the first emperors without significant alteration. Several offices from the republican era, held by individuals, were combined under the control of a single person. These changes became permanent, and gradually conferred sovereignty on the Emperor. HP CT1A Laptop Keyboard
Cicero's description of the ideal state, in De re publica, does not equate to a modern day "republic"; it is more like enlightened absolutism. His philosophical works were influential when Enlightenment philosophers such as Voltaire developed their political concepts. HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
In its classical meaning, a republic was any stable well-governed political community. Both Plato and Aristotle identified three forms of government:democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. However, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
mixed government was considered ideal. First Plato and Aristotle, and then Polybius and Cicero, developed the notion that the ideal republic is a mixture of these three forms of government. The writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion. HP COMPAQ NX6325 Laptop Keyboard
Cicero expressed reservations concerning the republican form of government. While in his theoretical works he defended monarchy, or at least a mixed monarchy/oligarchy, in his own political life, he generally opposed men, like Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Octavian, TOSHIBA G83C0003G110 laptop keyboard
who were trying to realise such ideals. Eventually, that opposition led to his death and Cicero can be seen as a victim of his own republican ideals.
Tacitus, a contemporary of Plutarch, was not concerned with whether a form of government could be analysed as a "republic" or a "monarchy".[2] HP Pavilion dv6-3230us laptop keyboard
He analyzed how the powers accumulated by the early Julio-Claudian dynasty were all given by a State that was still notionally a republic. Nor was the Roman Republic "forced" to give away these powers: it did so freely and reasonably, certainly in Augustus' case, because of his many services to the state, freeing it from civil wars and disorder. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
Tacitus was one of the first to ask whether such powers were given to the head of state because the citizens wanted to give them, or whether they were given for other reasons (for example, because one had a deified ancestor). DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
The latter case led more easily to abuses of power. In Tacitus' opinion, the trend away from a true republic was irreversible only when Tiberius established power, shortly after Augustus' death in AD 14 (much later than most historians place the start of the Imperial form of government in Rome). By this time, too many principles defining some powers as "untouchable" had been implemented.[3] SONY VGN-FE21M laptop keyboard
In Europe, republicanism was revived in the late Middle Ages when a number of states, which arose from medieval communes, embraced a republican system of government. These were generally small but wealthy trading states in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. SONY 148084122 laptop keyboard
Haakonssen notes that by the Renaissance, Europe was divided, such that those states controlled by a landed elite were monarchies, and those controlled by a commercial elite were republics. The latter included the Italian city states of Florence, Genoa, and Venice and members of the Hanseatic League. ASUS F6VE laptop keyboard
Building upon concepts of medieval feudalism, Renaissance scholars used the ideas of the ancient world to advance their view of an ideal government. Thus the republicanism developed during the Renaissance is known as 'classical republicanism' because it relied on classical models. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard
This terminology was developed by Zera Fink in the 1960s but some modern scholars, such as Brugger, consider it confuses the "classical republic" with the system of government used in the ancient world. 'Early modern republicanism' has been proposed as an alternative term. It is also sometimes called civic humanism. SONY Vaio VGN-AW310J laptop keyboard
Beyond simply a non-monarchy, early modern thinkers conceived of an ideal republic, in which mixed government was an important element, and the notion that virtue and the common good were central to good government. Lenovo ThinkPad T400S-2815 laptop keyboard
Republicanism also developed its own distinct view of liberty.
Renaissance authors who spoke highly of republics were rarely critical of monarchies. While Niccolò Machiavelli's Discourses on Livy is the period's key work on republics, he also wrote The Prince on how best to run a monarchy. HP AELX6U00210 laptop keyboard
The early modern writers did not see the republican model as universally applicable; most thought that it could be successful only in very small and highly urbanized city-states. Jean Bodin in Six Books of the Commonwealth (fr)identified monarchy with republic.[clarification needed] TOSHIBA Satellite L40-17U laptop keyboard
Classical writers like Tacitus, and Renaissance writers like Machiavelli, tried to avoid an outspoken preference for one government system or another. Enlightenment philosophers, on the other hand, expressed a clear opinion. SONY VAIO VGN-FS760/W laptop keyboard
Thomas More, writing before the Age of Enlightenment, was too outspoken for the reigning king's taste, even though he coded his political preferences in a Utopian allegory.
In England a type of republicanism evolved that was not wholly opposed to monarchy; thinkers such as Thomas More and Sir Thomas Smith saw a monarchy, firmly constrained by law, as compatible with republicanism. ACER V104730BS1 laptop keyboard
Anti-monarchism became more strident in the Dutch Republic during and after the Eighty Years' War, which began in 1568. This anti-monarchism was more propaganda than a political philosophy; most of the anti-monarchist works appeared in the form of widely distributed pamphlets. This evolved into a systematic critique of monarchy, ACER Aspire 7751G laptop keyboard
written by men such as Johan Uytenhage de Mist, Radboud Herman Scheel, Lieven de Beaufort and the brothers Johan andPeter de la Court. These writers saw all monarchies as illegitimate tyrannies that were inherently corrupt. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
These authors were more concerned with preventing the position of Stadholder from evolving into a monarchy, than with attacking their former rulers. Dutch republicanism also influenced on French Huguenots during the Wars of Religion. In the other states of early modern Europe republicanism was more moderate. TOSHIBA PK130BH2A00 laptop keyboard
Oliver Cromwell set up a republic called the Commonwealth of England (1649–1660) and ruled as a near dictator after the overthrow of King Charles I.James Harrington was then a leading philosopher of republicanism. TOSHIBA MP-09K53US6698 laptop keyboard
The collapse of the Commonwealth of England in 1660 and the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II discredited republicanism among England's ruling circles. However they welcomed the liberalism, and emphasis on rights, Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard
of John Locke, which played a major role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Even so, republicanism flourished in the "country" party of the early 18th century, which denounced the corruption of the "court" party, producing a political theory that heavily influenced the American colonists. ACER Aspire 4810TZ-4011 Laptop Keyboard
In general the English ruling classes of the 18th century vehemently opposed republicanism, typified by the attacks on John Wilkes, and especially on the American Revolution and theFrench Revolution.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-FS760/W laptop keyboard
In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth republicanism was an influential ideology. After the establishment of the Commonwealth of Two Nations, republicans supported the status quo, of having a very weak monarch, SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard
and opposed those who thought a stronger monarchy was needed. These mostly Polish republicans, such as Łukasz Górnicki, Andrzej Wolan, and Stanisław Konarski, were well read in classical and Renaissance texts and firmly believed that their state was a republic on the Roman model, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
and started to call their state the Rzeczpospolita. Atypically, Polish-Lithuanian republicanism was not the ideology of the commercial class, but rather of the landed aristocracy, which would lose power if the monarchy were expanded. This resulted in an oligarchy of the greatmagnates. HP 519265-001 laptop keyboard
French and Swiss Enlightenment thinkers, such as Montesquieu and later Rousseau, expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic should be: some of their new ideas were scarcely traceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Concepts they contributed, HP G42-265LA laptop keyboard
or heavily elaborated, were social contract, positive law, and mixed government. They also borrowed from, and distinguished republicanism from, the ideas of liberalism that were developing at the same time. DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard
Liberalism and republicanism were frequently conflated during this period, because they were both opposed to absolute monarchy. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. TOSHIBA V114302CS1 US laptop keyboard
An important distinction is that, while republicanism continued to stress the importance of civic virtue and the common good, liberalism was based on economics and individualism. It is clearest in the matter of private property which, according to some, may be maintained only under protection of established positive law. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X301 laptop keyboard
Jules Ferry, Prime Minister of France from 1880 to 1885, followed both these schools of thought and eventually enacted the Ferry Laws which were intended to overturn the Falloux Laws, by embracing the anti-clerical thinking of the Philosophs. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21Z laptop keyboard
These laws ended the Catholic Church's involvement with many government institutions in late 19th-century France, including schools.
In the history of French politics, republicanism has faced many challenges. There were those who claimed to be republicans but who in actual practice promoted rule by a minority (sometimes a minority of one), SONY VAIO VGN-NR21S/S laptop keyboard
including those Jacobins responsible for the Great Terror, and the emperors Napoleon I and Napoleon III; the imposition of monarchies in 1815 and 1830; the threat of dictatorship in the 1880s; the proto-fascism of the Vichy regime in 1940–44; the threatened coups of 1957 and 1968. But the republican system has survived in France.[5] SONY VGN-FE31B laptop keyboard
In recent years a debate has developed over the role of republicanism in the American Revolution and in the British radicalism of the 18th century. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard [6]
The new interpretations were pioneered by J.G.A. Pocock who argued in The Machiavellian Moment (1975) that, at least in the early 18th century, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pocock's view is now widely accepted.[7] SONY VAIO VGN-CR41S laptop keyboard
Bernard Bailyn and Gordon Wood pioneered the argument that the American founding fathers were more influenced by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University professor Isaac Kramnick, on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean.[8] HP Mini 210-2002er laptop keyboard
In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and political leaders of the colonies studied history intently, looking for models of good government. They especially followed the development of republican ideas in England.[9] Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:[10] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, John Milton, James Harrington and Sidney, Trenchard, Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far as Montesquieu, formed the authoritative literature of this culture; SONY VAIO VGN-FW11S laptop keyboard
and its values and concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the personality was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, HP Pavilion dv6-3134nr laptop keyboard
faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia), established churches (opposed to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion) and the promotion of a monied interest — though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies of settlement. COMPAQ Presario CQ61-300 laptop keyboard
A neoclassical politics provided both the ethos of the elites and the rhetoric of the upwardly mobile, and accounts for the singular cultural and intellectual homogeneity of the Founding Fathers and their generation. HP Mini 110-1197TU laptop keyboard
The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made the American Revolution inevitable. Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and as a threat to the established liberties the Americans enjoyed.[11]
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By abandoning English constitutionalism and creating a new republic based on the rights of the individual, the North Americans introduced a new force in the world. Ideas spread most rapidly when they have found adequate concrete expression. Thus republicanism entered our Romanic/Germanic world.... Up to this point, GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard
the conviction had prevailed in Europe that monarchy best served the interests of the nation. Now the idea spread that the nation should govern itself. But only after a state had actually been formed on the basis of the theory of representation did the full significance of this idea become clear. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard
All later revolutionary movements have this same goal... This was the complete reversal of a principle. Until then, a king who ruled by the grace of God had been the center around which everything turned. Now the idea emerged that power should come from below.... HP Mini 210-1064TU Laptop Keyboard
These two principles are like two opposite poles, and it is the conflict between them that determines the course of the modern world. In Europe the conflict between them had not yet taken on concrete form; with the French Revolution it did. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard
Republicanism, especially that of Rousseau, played a central role in the French Revolution and foreshadowed modern republicanism. The revolutionaries, after overthrowing the French monarchy in the 1790s, DELL XPS M1530 Laptop Keyboard
began by setting up a republic; Napoleon converted it into an Empire with a new aristocracy. In the 1830s Belgium adopted some of the innovations of the progressive political philosophers of the Enlightenment. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Républicanisme is a French version of modern republicanism. It is a form of social contract, deduced from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's idea of a general will. Ideally, each citizen is engaged in a direct relationship with the state, removing the need for identity politics based on local, religious, or racial identification. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Républicanisme, in theory, makes anti-discrimination laws unnecessary, but some critics argue that colour-blind laws serve to perpetuate discrimination.[13]
Radicalism arose in European states in the 19th century. All 19th century radicals supported a constitutional republic and universal suffrage, while European liberals were at the time in favor of constitutional monarchy and census suffrage. SONY VAIO VGN-NR11M/S Laptop Keyboard
Most radical parties later favored economic liberalism andcapitalism. This distinction between radicalism and liberalism had not totally disappeared in the 20th century, although many radicals simply joined liberal parties. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard
For example, the Radical Party of the Left in France or the (originally Italian) Transnational Radical Party, which exist today, are more focussed on republicanism than on simple liberalism.
Liberalism, ASUS F3H Laptop Keyboard
was represented in France by the Orleanists who rallied to the Third Republic only in the late 19th century, after the comte de Chambord's 1883 death and the 1891 papal encyclical Rerum Novarum. Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
But the early Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party in France, and Chartism in Britain, were closer to republicanism, and the left-wing. Radicalism remained close to republicanism in the 20th century, DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
at least in France, where they governed several times with other left-wing parties (participating in both the Cartel des gauches coalitions as well as the Popular Front).
Discredited after the Second World War, HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
French radicals split into a left-wing party – the Radical Party of the Left, an associate of the Socialist Party– and the Radical Party "valoisien",GATEWAY NX570X Laptop Keyboard
an associate party of the conservative Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) and its Gaullist predecessors. Italian radicals also maintained close links with republicanism, as well as with socialism, with the Partito radicale founded in 1955, which became theTransnational Radical Party in 1989.
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Republicanism is a system that replaces or accompanies inherited rule. There is an emphasis on liberty, and a rejection of corruption.[20] It strongly influenced American Revolution and the French Revolution in the 1770s and 1790s, FUJITSU CP228900-01 Laptop Keyboard
respectively.[4] Republicans, in these two examples, tended to reject inherited elites and aristocracies, but two questions were left open: whether a republic, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an unelected upper chamber, TOSHIBA A000014900 laptop keyboard
with members perhaps being appointed meritorious experts, and whether it should have a constitutional monarch.[21]
Although conceptually separate from democracy, republicanism included the key principles of rule by the consent of the governed and sovereignty of the people. In effect republicanism held that kings and aristocracies were not the real rulers, HP 441541-001 laptop keyboard
but rather the whole people were. Exactly how the people were to rule was an issue of democracy – republicanism itself did not specify how.[22] In the United States, the solution was the creation of political parties that reflected the votes of the people, HP Pavilion dv3-2157cl laptop keyboard
and which controlled the government (see Republicanism in the United States). Many exponents of republicanism, such asBenjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson were strong promoters of representative democracy.[citation needed]However, Lenovo 45N2071 laptop keyboard
other supporters of republicanism, such as John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, were more distrustful of majority rule and sought a government with more power for elites.[citation needed] There were similar debates in many other democratizingnations.[23] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct orrepresentative.[24] Today the term republic usually refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, who serves for a limited term; DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies, with an elected or appointed head of government such as aprime minister.[25] HP HDX18-1100 CTO laptop keyboard
The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy; James Madison argued that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5172LM laptop keyboard
whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.[26] What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government should be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend."[27] HP Pavilion dv6-3133nr laptop keyboard
Some countries (such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Scandinavian countries, and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional ones with limited, or eventually merely symbolic, SONY VAIO VGN-NR11M/S laptop keyboard
powers. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system, whether or not they were replaced with democratic institutions (such as in the US, France, China, Iran, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, Turkey and Egypt). Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
In Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Papua New Guinea, and some other countries the monarch, or its representative, is given supreme executive power, but by convention acts only on the advice of his or her ministers. Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 laptop keyboard
the members of which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these houses lost power (as the UK House of Lords), or else became elective and remained powerful (as the US Senate).[28][29]
Freethought or free thought is a philosophical viewpoint which holds that positions regarding truth should be formed on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism, HP Pavilion dv5-1002au laptop keyboard
rather than authority, tradition, or other dogmas.[1][2][3]The cognitive application of freethought is known as "freethinking", and practitioners of freethought are known as "freethinkers".[1][4]
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Thus, freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts, scientific inquiry, and logicalprinciples, independent of any logical fallacies or the intellectually limiting effects of authority, confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
prejudice, sectarianism, tradition, urban legend, and all other dogmas. Regarding religion, freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to support the existence of supernatural phenomena.[5] HP Pavilion dv3z-1000 Laptop Keyboard
A line from "Clifford's Credo" by the 19th-century British mathematician and philosopher William Kingdon Cliffordperhaps best describes the premise of freethought: "It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence." IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51 1833 Laptop Keyboard
Critical thought has flourished in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, in the repositories of knowledge and wisdom inIreland and the Iranian civilizations (e.g., Khayyam and his unorthodox Sufi Rubaiyat poems), and in other civilizations, as the Chinese, HP HDX18-1000EO Laptop Keyboard
(e.g., the seafaring Southern Sòng's renaissance),[7] and on through heretical thinkers of esoteric alchemy or astrology, to the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation.
French physician and writer Rabelais celebrated "rabelaisian" Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
freedom as well as good feasting and drinking (an expression and a symbol of freedom of the mind) in defiance of the hypocrisies of conformist orthodoxy in his utopian Thelema Abbey (from θέλημα: free "will"), the devise of which was Do What Thou Wilt: HP G71-448CL Laptop Keyboard
"So had Gargantua established it. In all their rule and strictest tie of their order there was but this one clause to be observed, Do What Thou Wilt; because free people ... act virtuously and avoid vice. They call this honor." SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard
When the hero of his book, Pantagruel, journeys to the "Oracle of The Div(in)e Bottle", he learns the lesson of life in one simple word: "Trinch!", Drink! Enjoy the simple life, learn wisdom and knowledge, as a free human. Beyond puns, irony, and satire, HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
Gargantua's prologue metaphor instructs the reader to "break the bone and suck out the substance-full marrow" ("la substantifique moëlle"), the core of wisdom.
In Germany, during the period (1815–1848) and before the March Revolution, the resistance of citizens against the dogma of the church increased. Lenovo Thinkpad T420S Keyboard
In 1844, under the influence of Johannes Ronge and Robert Blum, belief in the rights of man, tolerance among men, and humanism grew, and by 1859 they had established the Bund Freireligiöser Gemeinden Deutschlands (Union of Secular Communities in Germany). HP 381068-001 Laptop Keyboard
This union still exists today, and is included as a member in the umbrella organization of free humanists. In 1881 in Frankfurt am Main, Ludwig Büchner established Deutscher Freidenkerbund (German Freethinkers League) as the first German organization for atheists. FUJITSU CP228900-01 Laptop Keyboard
In 1892 the Freidenker-Gesellschaft and in 1906 the Deutscher Monistenbund were formed.[9] Freethought organizations developed "Jugendweihe", secular "confirmation" ceremonies, and atheist funeral rites.[9][10] HP G61-400SP laptop keyboard
The Union of Freethinkers for Cremation was founded in 1905, and the Central Union of German Proletariat Freethinker in 1908. The two groups merged in 1927, becoming the German Freethinking Association in 1930.[11] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
More "bourgeois" organizations declined after World War I, and "proletarian" Freethought groups proliferated, becoming an organization of socialist parties.[9][12] European socialist freethought groups formed the International of Proletarian Freethinkers (IPF) in 1925.[13] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50e-1870 laptop keyboard
Activists agitated for Germans to disaffiliate from the Church and for secularization of elementary schools; between 1919–21 and 1930–32 more than 2.5 million Germans, for the most part supporters of the Social Democratic and Communist parties, TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 laptop keyboard
gave up church membership.[14] Conflict developed between radical forces including the Soviet League of the Militant Godless and Social Democratic forces in Western Europe led by Theodor Hartwig and Max Sievers.[13] In 1930 the Soviet and allied delegations, following a walk-out, took over the IPF and excluded the former leaders.[13] HP Pavilion DV6z-1200 CTO laptop keyboard
Following Hitler's rise to power in 1933, most freethought organizations were banned, though some right-wing groups that worked with Völkisch associations were tolerated by the Nazis until the mid-1930s.[9][12] SONY VAIO VGN-CS21S/W laptop keyboard
In the Netherlands, freethought has existed in organized form since the establishment of De Dageraad (now known as de Vrije Gedachte) in 1856. Among its most notable subscribing 19th century individuals were Johannes van Vloten, Multatuli, Adriaan Gerhard and Domela Nieuwenhuis. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard
In 2009, Frans van Dongen established the Atheist-Secular Party, which takes a considerably restrictive view of religion and public religious expressions.
Since the 19th century, Freethought in the Netherlands has become more well known as a political phenomenon through at least three currents: HP Pavilion dv6-2155dx laptop keyboard
liberal freethinking, conservative freethinking, and classical freethinking. In other words, parties which identify as freethinking tend to favor non-doctrinal, rational approaches to their preferred ideologies, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
and arose as secular alternatives to both clerically aligned parties as well as labor-aligned parties. Common themes among freethinking political parties are "freedom", "liberty", and "individualism".HP Pavilion dv4-1240tx laptop keyboard
The Free Thought movement was first organized in the United States as the “Free Press Association” in 1827 in defense of George Houston, publisher of The Correspondent, an early journal of Biblical criticism in an era when blasphemy convictions were still possible. Houston had helped found an Owenitecommunity at Haverstraw, New York in 1826–27. SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
The short-lived Correspondent was superseded by the Free Enquirer, the official organ of Robert Owen's New Harmony community in Indiana, edited by Robert Dale Owen and Fanny Wright between 1828 and 1832 in New York. SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
During this time Robert Dale Owen sought to introduce the philosophic skepticism of the Free Thought movement into the Workingmen’s Party in New York city. The Free enquirers annual civic celebrations of Paine’s birthday after 1825 finally coalesced in 1836 in the first national Free Thinkers organization, HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard
the “United States Moral and Philosophical Society for the General Diffusion of Useful Knowledge”. It was founded on August 1, 1836, at a national convention at the Lyceum in Saratoga Springs, with Isaac S. Smith of Buffalo, New York, SONY VAIO VGN-SZ640 laptop keyboard
as president. He was also the 1836 Equal Rights Party’s candidate for Governor of New York. Smith had also been the Workingmen's Party candidate for Lt. Governor of New York in 1830. The Moral and Philosophical Society published The Beacon, edited by Gilbert Vale.[15] TOSHIBA Satellite A135-S4447 laptop keyboard
Driven by the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the 19th century saw an immigration of German freethinkers and anti-clericalists to the United States (see Forty-Eighters). In the United States, they hoped to be able to live by their principles, without interference from government and church authorities.[17] HP G42-475TU laptop keyboard
Many Freethinkers settled in German immigrant strongholds, including St. Louis, Indianapolis, Wisconsin, and Texas, where they founded the town of Comfort, Texas, as well as others.[17]
These groups of German Freethinkers referred to their organizations as Freie Gemeinden, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
or "free congregations".[17]The first Freie Gemeinde was established in St. Louis in 1850.[18] Others followed in Pennsylvania, California, Washington, D.C., New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Texas, and other states.[17][18]
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· Freethought in the United States began to decline in the late nineteenth century. Its anti-religious views alienated would-be sympathizers. The movement also lacked cohesive goals or beliefs. By the early twentieth century, most Freethought Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
congregations had disbanded or joined other mainstream churches. The longest continuously operating Freethought congregation in America is the Free Congregation of Sauk County, Wisconsin, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
which was founded in 1852 and is still active today. It affiliated with the American Unitarian Association (now the Unitarian Universalist Association) in 1955.[19] D. M. Bennett was the founder and publisher of The Truth Seeker in 1873, a radical freethought and reform American periodical. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
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