Nebuchadnezzar II
Nebuchadnezzar II ( i/nɛbjʉkədˈnɛzər/; Aramaic: ܢܵܒܘܼ ܟܘܼܕܘܼܪܝܼ ܐܘܼܨܘܼܪ ; Hebrew: נְבוּכַדְנֶצַּר Nəḇūḵaḏneṣṣar; Ancient Greek:Ναβουχοδονόσωρ Naboukhodonósôr; Arabic: نِبُوخَذنِصَّر nibūḫaḏniṣṣar; SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
c 634 – 562 BC) was king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, who reigned c. 605 BC – 562 BC. He is credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and for the destruction of the First Temple. He is featured in the Book of Daniel and is mentioned in several other books of theBible. Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
The Akkadian name, Nabû-kudurri-uṣur, means "O god Nabu, preserve/defend my firstborn son". Nabu is the Babylonian deity of wisdom, and son of the god Marduk. In an inscription, Nebuchadnezzar styles himself as Nabu's "beloved" and "favourite".[2][3] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
His name has previously beeNebuchadnezzar was the oldest son and successor of Nabopolassar, who delivered Babylon from its three centuries of vassalage to its fellow Mesopotamian stateAssyria, and in alliance with the Medes, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians, laid Nineveh in ruins. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
According to Berossus, some years before he became king of Babylon, Babylonian dynasties were united. There are conflicting accounts of Nitocris of Babylon being either his wife or daughter.
Nabopolassar was intent on annexing the western provinces of Syria (ancient Aram) from Necho II (whose own dynasty had been installed as vassals of Assyria, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
and who was still hoping to help restore Assyrian power), and to this end dispatched his son westward with a large army. In the ensuing Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC, the Egyptian and Assyrian army was defeated and driven back, and the region of Syria and Phoenicia were brought under the control of Babylon. Nabopolassar died in August that year, and Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon to ascend to the throne. HP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
n mistakenly interpreted as "O Nabu, defend my kudurru",[4] in which sense akudurru is an inscribed stone deed of property. However, when contained in a ruler's title, kudurru approximates to "firstborn son" or "oldest son".[5] GATEWAY 101974 laptop keyboard
Variations of the Hebrew form include נְבוּכַדְנֶאצַּר and נְבוּכַדְרֶאצַּר (Nəḇuḵaḏreṣṣar). He is also known as Bakhat Nasar, which means "winner of the fate", or literally, "fate winner".[citation needed] HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
After the defeat of the Cimmerians and Scythians, previous allies in the defeat of Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar's expeditions were directed westward, although the powerful Median empire lay to the north. Nebuchadnezzar's political marriage to Amytis of Media, the daughter of the Median king, had ensured peace between the two empires. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
Nebuchadnezzar engaged in several military campaigns designed to increase Babylonian influence in Aramea (modern Syria) andJudah. An attempted invasion of Egypt in 601 BC was met with setbacks, however, leading to numerous rebellions among thePhoenician and Canaanite states of the Levant, including Judah. ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with these rebellions, capturingJerusalem in 597 BC and deposing King Jehoiakim, then in 587 BC due to rebellion, destroying both the city and the temple, and deporting many of the prominent citizens along with a sizable portion of the Jewish population of Judea to Babylon.[6] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
These events are described in the Prophets (Nevi'im) and Writings (Ketuvim), sections of the Hebrew Bible (in the books 2 Kings and Jeremiah, and 2 Chronicles, respectively). After the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar engaged in a thirteen-year siege of Tyre (circa 586–573) which ended in a compromise, with the Tyrians accepting Babylonian authority.[7][8] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Following the pacification of the Phoenician state of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar turned again to Egypt. A clay tablet,[9] now in the British Museum, states: "In the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the country of Babylon, he went to Mitzraim(Egypt) to wage war. Amasis, king of Egypt, collected [his army], and marched and spread abroad." DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
Having completed the subjugation of Phoenicia, and a campaign against Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar set himself to rebuild and adorn the city of Babylon, and constructed canals, aqueducts, temples and reservoirs. HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
According to Babylonian tradition, towards the end of his life, Nebuchadnezzar prophesied the impending ruin of the Chaldean Dynasty (Berossus and Abydenus inEusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 9.41). He died in Babylon between the second and sixth months of the forty-third year of his reign, and was succeeded by Amel-Marduk. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
During the last century of Nineveh's existence, Babylon had been greatly devastated, not only at the hands of Sennacherib andAssurbanipal, but also as a result of her ever renewed rebellions. Nebuchadnezzar, continuing his father's work of reconstruction, aimed at making his capital one of the world's wonders. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730F laptop keyboard
Old temples were restored; new edifices of incredible magnificence were erected to the many gods of the Babylonian pantheon (Diodorus of Sicily, 2.95; Herodotus, 1.183). To complete the royal palace begun by Nabopolassar, nothing was spared, neither "cedar-wood, nor bronze, gold, silver, rare and precious stones";[10] HP Pavilion DV7-3112tx laptop keyboard
an underground passage and a stone bridge connected the two parts of the city separated by the Euphrates; the city itself was rendered impregnable by the construction of a triple line of walls. The bridge across the Euphrates is of particular interest, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5107 laptop keyboard
in that it was supported on asphalt covered brick piers that were streamlined to reduce the upstream resistance to flow, and the downstream turbulence that would otherwise undermine the foundations. Nebuchadnezzar's construction activity was not confined to the capital; he is credited with the restoration of the Lake ofSippar, GATEWAY P-6825 laptop keyboard
the opening of a port on the Persian Gulf, and the building of the Mede wall between the Tigris and the Euphrates to protect the country against incursions from the north. These undertakings required a considerable number of laborers; Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
an inscription at the great temple of Marduk suggests that the labouring force used for his public works was most likely made up of captives brought from various parts of western Asia.
Nebuchadnezzar is credited by Berossus with the construction of the Hanging Gardens, for his homesick wife Amyitis (or Amytis) to remind her of her homeland, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Medis (Media) in Persia. He is also credited for the construction of the Ishtar Gate, one of the eight gates leading into the city of Babylon.[11] However, some scholars argue that the Gardens may have been constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in his capital city, Nineveh.[12][13] SONY VAIO VGN-AR770 laptop keyboard
Nebuchadnezzar is widely known through his portrayal in the Bible, especially the Book of Daniel. The Bible discusses events of his reign and his conquest of Jerusalem. The second chapter of Daniel relates an account attributed to the second year of his reign, in which Nebuchadnezzar dreams of a huge image made of various materials (gold, silver, bronze, iron and clay). Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
The prophet Daniel tells him God's interpretation, that it stands for the rise and fall of world powers, starting with Nebuchadnezzar's own as the golden head.
In Daniel chapter 3, Nebuchadnezzar erects a large idol made of gold for worship during a public ceremony on the plain of Dura. When three Jews, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (respectively renamed Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by their captors, to facilitate their assimilation into Babylonian culture), refuse to take part, he has them cast into a fiery furnace. They are protected by what Nebuchadnezzar describes as "a son of the gods" (Daniel 3:25 NIV) and emerge unscathed without even the smell of smoke.[14] GATEWAY NX570X laptop keyboard
Daniel chapter 4 contains an account of Nebuchadnezzar's dream about an immense tree, which Daniel interprets to mean that Nebuchadnezzar will go insane for seven years because of his pride. The chapter is written from the perspective of king Nebuchadnezzar. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
While boasting about his achievements, Nebuchadnezzar is humbled by God. The king loses his sanity and lives in the wild like an animal for seven years. After this, his sanity and position are restored and he praises and honors God. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Theologians have interpreted this story in several ways. Origen attributed the metamorphosis as a representation of the fall of Lucifer, Bodin and Cluvier maintained it was a metamorphosis of both soul and body,Tertullian confined the transformation to the body only, without the loss of reason, cases of which Augustine stated were reported in Italy, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
but gave them little credit. Gaspard Peucer asserted that the transformation of men into wolves was common in Livonia. Some Jewish Rabbins asserted there was an exchange of souls between the man and ox, while others argued for an apparent or docetic change which was not real. HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
The most generally received opinion, which was also held by Jerome, was that the madman was under the influence of hypochondriachal monomania by which God could humble the pride of kings.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-CR31S Laptop Keyboard
There has been speculation by modern writers that the Biblical account might preserve memories of an illness that had a natural organic cause. Some consider it to have been an attack of clinical lycanthropy or alternatively porphyria.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Psychologist Henry Gleitman has claimed that Nebuchadnezzar's insanity was a result of general paresis or paralytic dementia seen in advanced cases of syphilis.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S Laptop Keyboard
Some scholars [18] think that Nebuchadnezzar's portrayal by Daniel is a mixture of traditions about Nebuchadnezzar and about Nabonidus (Nabuna'id) who became confused with him. For example, Nabonidus was the natural, or paternal father of Belshazzar, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and the seven years of insanity could be related to Nabonidus' sojourn in Tayma in the desert. Fragments from the Dead Sea Scrolls, written from 150 BC to 70 AD [19] state that it was Nabonidus (N-b-n-y) who was smitten by God with a fever for seven years of his reign while his son Belshazzar was regent. HP G60-249WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Book of Jeremiah contains a prophecy about the arising of a "destroyer of nations", commonly regarded as a reference to Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 4:7),[20] as well as an account of Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem and looting and destruction of the temple (Jer. 52). IBM MCF-C10AM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
says "Helel ben Shaḥar" ("the shining one, son of the dawn").[21] It is a taunting prophecy against an oppressive king.[22] In Isaiah 14,[23] the king is being mocked, as he is struck through with a sword, killed, and thrown into a common grave. SONY Vaio VPC-EB42FM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Mainstream Christianity attributes this passage to the fall of Luciferbecause verse 20 says that this king will not be joined with the others in burial, but rather be cast out of the grave. "Helel ben Shaḥar" may refer to theMorning Star, but Isaiah gives no indication that Helel is a star.[24] HP Mini 110-3120ss Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
According to Tabari, Nebuchadnezzar, whose Persian name was Bukhtrashah, was of Persian descent, from the progeny of Jūdharz. Some believe he lived as long as 300 years.[25] While much of what is written about Nebuchadnezzar depicts a ruthless warrior, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
some texts show a ruler who was concerned with both spiritual and moral issues in life and was seeking divine guidance.[26]
Nebuchadnezzar was seen as a strong, conquering force in Islamic texts and historical compilations, like Tabari. The Babylonian leader used force and destruction to grow an empire. He conquered kingdom after kingdom, including Phoenicia, Toshiba AB7005HX-SB3 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Philistia, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Jerusalem, and more.[27] The most notable events that Tabari’s collection focuses on is the destruction of Jerusalem.[28]
Nebuchadnezzar was sent from Balkh by Luhrāsb, a Persian ruler, to defeat the Jews in Jerusalem. Some sources believe that Luhrāsb’s son, Bahman, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
is the one who sent Nebuchadnezzar to exile the Jews from Jerusalem.[29] According to one source in Tabari, at the time Nebuchadnezzar was summoned to defeat Jerusalem, he was finishing a peace agreement with the people of Damascus. Because of this, HP 3MLX8TATP20 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
he sent an officer to ease the tension in Jerusalem and create a peace treaty. The officer successfully met with the king of Jerusalem and made a peace treaty. As was custom for the Babylonians, HP Pavilion dv2820es Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
the officer took hostages with him as and began the return journey to Nebuchadnezzar. When the officer reached Tiberias, he heard that the Israelites had revolted against their king and killed him because the king had given the Babylonians hostages. HP Pavilion dv6-3052nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The hostages were then beheaded and Nebuchadnezzar made his way to Jerusalem. Most of the sources agree that Nebuchadnezzar was sent to Jerusalem by God to punish the Jews for their sinful behavior.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-3034nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
After Nebuchadnezzar ravaged the town, killing and enslaving the people, he came upon the prophet Jeremiah in a prison. He had been jailed for about three years because God told him what Nebuchadnezzar would do to Jerusalem. SONY VAIO PCG-6L2L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
He tried to warn the Israelites and told them to repent, but they jailed him instead. God sent an angel to ask Jeremiah if the Israelites must be destroyed and Jeremiah agrees, beginning the attack by Nebuchadnezzar. When Jeremiah reveals all of this to Nebuchadnezzar, HP Pavilion dv7-6107tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
he replies, “Wretched people, they defied their Lord’s messenger” 10. He then released Jeremiah. This encounter gives evidence that there were still many different gods being worshiped, as Nebuchadnezzar does not refer to God as his own god, and displays a sort of interfaith understanding between religions. HP 495079-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Nebuchadnezzar does not worship the God of Christianity but Marduk, a Babylonian god most often related to judgement.[30][31] Nebuchadnezzar has respect for Jeremiah and his beliefs[32] that allows Jeremiah to be an ally and help Nebuchadnezzar with policy.[33] HP Pavilion dv7-6135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Nebuchadnezzar then goes on to attack Egypt. After releasing Jeremiah from prison, the remaining Israelites apologized to Jeremiah but still do not listen to him when he tells them to stay in Jerusalem. SONY Vaio VGN-NW280F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
They instead flee to Egypt, where the king takes them in even after Nebuchadnezzar has asked that they be returned. Nebuchadnezzar then conquers Egypt and moves further north in Africa before returning home with treasures and hoards of slaves. Nebuchadnezzar’s victories display the period of growth that Babylonians were experiencing. Dell Vostro 3750 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Every new victory resulted in a further accumulation of wealth and prisoners of war, both of which were used to strengthen the empire even more. It is also suggested that Nebuchadnezzar took royals hostage but treated them well so that when they were released, they would be supportive and complimentary of the Babylonian Empire.[34] HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
After Nebuchadnezzar leaves, there is a disconnect between the sources. One says that Jeremiah speaks to God, who tells him that the city will be rebuilt. He then puts Jeremiah to sleep for a hundred years. The Israelites return and begin to rebuild the city and then God wakes Jeremiah from his slumber.[35] HP Pavilion G61-631NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other sources say that Nebuchadnezzar puts Zedekiah in power. Jeremiah provides support and counsel to Zedekiah for the two years he is in charge because Zedekiah knows that the city is doomed.[36] Jeremiah stays by his side, realizing that it is better to be Babylon’s ally than enemy. After ruling for two years, Toshiba Satellite A50-111 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Zedekiah tried to make an alliance with Egypt, leading to his demise.[37] Nebuchadnezzar puts an end to the alliance and the cities. Toshiba Satellite A205-S5804 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Some accounts say that Bahman took over after Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem, eventually passing off the power to Cyrus. These accounts do not say a lot about Nebuchadnezzar or make him seem as powerful. HP Pavilion dv8229ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Yet another source say that God let Nebuchadnezzar rule as long as he wanted. Near the end of his reign, and life, Nebuchadnezzar has a dream but he cannot remember it when he awakes. He calls Daniel to pray and talk to God to figure out what he had dreamed. He comes back and tells Nebuchadnezzar about his dream: He saw a statue, DELL Studio 1450 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
made up of many different materials. The feet were formed out of clay and the materials got stronger and stronger the higher they were on the body, with the head and neck being made from iron. These different substances symbolized the different reigns of rulers. DELL Studio 1458 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Then, a rock was sent down from heaven and smashed the statue. This was meant to symbolize God sending a prophet to smash the reign of Nebuchadnezzar.[38] Soon after this, Nebuchadnezzar addressed the Israelites. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad W500 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
He talked about how powerful he was, so powerful that he had destroyed God’s house and people and that when he died, he would take over God’s kingdom. God, having heard this, pitied his people. He allowed them to return to Judea and multiply. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
One of the captives, Ezra, was distraught about the fact that the Israelites’ scripture had been destroyed with the temple. God returns the scripture to him and his people[39] and the Israelites live on under their own leadership. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one whose location has not been definitely established.
Traditionally they were said to have been built in the ancient city of Babylon, near present-day Hillah,Babil province, in Iraq. The Babylonian priest Berossus, HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard
writing in about 290 BC and quoted later byJosephus, attributed the gardens to the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled between 605 and 562 BC. There are no extant Babylonian texts which mention the gardens, and no definitive archaeological evidence has been found in Babylon.[1][2] SONY V072078AS1 Laptop Keyboard
One legend says that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were created by Emperor Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylon, for his Persian wife, Queen Amytis, because she missed the green hills and valleys of her homeland. Emperor Nebuchadnezzar II also built a grand palace that came to be known as 'The Marvel of the Mankind' or ('Al A'akheed vach altira'av chad') . HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Because of the lack of evidence it has been suggested that the Hanging Gardens are purely legendary, and the descriptions found in ancient Greek and Roman writers including Strabo, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus represent a romantic ideal of an eastern garden.[3] If it did indeed exist, it was destroyed sometime after first century AD.[4][5] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard
Alternatively, the original garden may have been a well-documented one that the Assyrian king Sennacherib(704-681 BC) built in his capital city of Nineveh on the River Tigris near the modern city of Mosul.[6] SONY Vaio PCG-K86P Laptop Keyboard
In ancient writings the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were first described by Berossus, a Babylonian priestof Marduk who wrote around 290 BC, although his books are known only from quotations by later authors (e.g., Flavius Josephus). HP Pavilion dm1-1010sa Laptop Keyboard
There are five principal writers (including Berossus) whose descriptions of Babylon are extant in some form today. These writers concern themselves with the size of the Hanging Gardens, why and how they were built, and how the gardens were irrigated. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Josephus (ca. 37–100 AD) quoted Berossus (writing ca. 290 BC), when he described the gardens.[7] Berossus described the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, and is the only writer to credit that king with the construction of the Hanging Gardens.[8] SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
In this palace he erected very high walks, supported by stone pillars; and by planting what was called a pensile paradise, and replenishing it with all sorts of trees, he rendered the prospect an exact resemblance of a mountainous country. This he did to gratify his queen, because she had been brought up in Media, and was fond of a mountainous situation.[9] ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
Diodorus Siculus (active ca. 60–30 BC) seems to have consulted the early 4th century BC texts of Ctesias of Cnidus for his description of the Hanging Gardens:
There was also, beside the acropolis, the Hanging Garden, as it is called, which was built, not by Semiramis, but by a later Syrian king to please one of his concubines; ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard
for she, they say, being a Persian by race and longing for the meadows of her mountains, asked the king to imitate, through the artifice of a planted garden, the distinctive landscape of Persia. The park extended four plethra on each side, and since the approach to the garden sloped like a hillside and the several parts of the structure rose from one another tier on tier, SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
the appearance of the whole resembled that of a theatre. When the ascending terraces had been built, there had been constructed beneath them galleries which carried the entire weight of the planted garden and rose little by little one above the other along the approach; and the uppermost gallery, HP 506782-001 Laptop Keyboard
which was fifty cubits high, bore the highest surface of the park, which was made level with the circuit wall of the battlements of the city. Furthermore, the walls, which had been constructed at great expense, HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
were twenty-two feet thick, while the passage-way between each two walls was ten feet wide. The roof above these beams had first a layer of reeds laid in great quantities of bitumen, over this two courses of baked brick bonded by cement, and as a third layer of covering of lead, to the end that the moisture from the soil might not penetrate beneath. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
On all this again earth had been piled to a depth sufficient for the roots of the largest trees; and the ground, when levelled off, was thickly planted with trees of every kind that, by their great size or other charm, could give pleasure to the beholder. And since the galleries, each projecting beyond another, all received the light, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
they contained many royal lodgings of every description; and there was one gallery which contained openings leading from the topmost surface and machines for supplying the gardens with water, the machines raising the water in great abundance from the river, although no one outside could see it being done. Now this park, as I have said, was a later construction.[10] TOSHIBA NSK-TAJ01 Laptop Keyboard
Quintus Curtius Rufus (active 1st century AD) referred to the writings of Cleitarchus, a 4th-century BC historian of Alexander the Great, when writing his ownHistory of Alexander the Great: ACER Aspire 5051AWXMi Laptop Keyboard
The Babylonians also have a citadel twenty stades in circumference. The foundations of its turrets are sunk thirty feet into the ground and the fortifications rise eighty feet above it at the highest point. On its summit are the hanging gardens, HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
a wonder celebrated by the fables of the Greeks. They are as high as the top of the walls and owe their charm to the shade of many tall trees. The columns supporting the whole edifice are built of rock, and on top of them is a flat surface of squared stones strong enough to bear the deep layer of earth placed upon it and the water used for irrigating it. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
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So stout are the trees the structure supports that their trunks are eight cubits thick and their height as much as fifty feet; they bear fruit as abundantly as if they were growing in their natural environment. And although time with its gradual decaying processes is as destructive to nature's works as to man's, even so this edifice survives undamaged, HP PK13ZK31000 Laptop Keyboard
despite being subjected to the pressure of so many tree-roots and the strain of bearing the weight of such a huge forest. It has a substructure of walls twenty feet thick at eleven foot intervals, so that from a distance one has the impression of woods overhanging their native mountains. Tradition has it that it is the work of a Syrian king who ruled from Babylon. ACER ZU2 Laptop Keyboard
He built it out of love for his wife who missed the woods and forests in this flat country and persuaded her husband to imitate nature's beauty with a structure of this kind.[11]
Strabo (ca. 64 BC – 21 AD) described of the Hanging Gardens as follows, in a passage that was thought to be based on the lost account of Onesicritus from the 4th century BC: Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Babylon, too, lies in a plain; and the circuit of its wall is three hundred and eighty-five stadia. The thickness of its wall is thirty-two feet; the height thereof between the towers is fifty cubits; that of the towers is sixty cubits; HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
and the passage on top of the wall is such that four-horsechariots can easily pass one another; and it is on this account that this and the hanging garden are called one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The garden is quadrangular in shape, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
and each side is four plethra in length. It consists of arched vaults, which are situated, one after another, on checkered, cube-like foundations. The checkered foundations, which are hollowed out, are covered so deep with earth that they admit of the largest of trees, DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard
having been constructed of baked brick and asphalt – the foundations themselves and the vaults and the arches. The ascent to the uppermostterrace-roofs is made by a stairway; HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
and alongside these stairs there were screws, through which the water was continually conducted up into the garden from the Euphrates by those appointed for this purpose, for the river, a stadium in width, flows through the middle of the city; and the garden is on the bank of the river."[12] ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
Philo of Byzantium, "the Paradoxographer" (writing in the 4th-5th century AD), whose list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World we use today,[13] was credited with the following description: HP G72-110SA Laptop Keyboard
The so-called Hanging Gardens have plants above ground, and are cultivated in the air, with the roots of the trees above the (normal) tilled earth, forming a roof. Four stone columns are set beneath, so that the entire space through the carved pillars is beneath the (artificial) ground. Palm trees lie in place on top of the pillars, alongside each other as (cross-)beams, TOSHIBA NSK-TN0SV Laptop Keyboard
leaving very little space in between. This timber does not rot, unlike others; when it is soaked and put under pressure it swells up and nourishes the growth from roots, since it incorporates into its own interstices what is planted with it from outside. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Much deep soil is piled on, and then broad-leaved and especially garden trees of many varieties are planted, and all kind of flowering plants, everything, in short, that is most joyous and pleasurable to the onlooker. The place is cultivated as if it were (normal) tilled earth, HP Mini 210-1135LA Laptop Keyboard
nd the growth of new shoots has to be pruned almost as much as on normal land. This (artificial) arable land is above the heads of those who stroll along through the pillars. When the uppermost surface is walked on, the earth on the roofing stays firm and undisturbed just like a (normal) place with deep soil. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
Aqueducts contain water running from higher places; partly they allow the flow to run straight downhill, and partly they force it up, running backwards, by means of a screw; through mechanical pressure they force it round and round the spirals of the machines. Being discharged into close-packed, HP AELX9U00110 Laptop Keyboard
large cisterns, altogether they irrigate the whole garden, inebriating the roots of the plants to their depths, and maintaining the wet arable land, so that it is just like an evergreen meadow, and the leaves of the trees, on the tender new growth, feed upon dew and have a wind-swept appearance. For the roots, suffering no thirst, sprout anew, HP Mini 1001TU Laptop Keyboard
benefitting from the moisture of the water that runs past, flowing at random, interweaving along the lower ground to the collecting point, and reliably protects the growing of trees that have become established. Exuberant and fit for a king is the ingenuity, and most of all, forced, because the cultivator's hard work is hanging over the heads of the spectators.[14] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard
There is some controversy as to whether the Hanging Gardens were an actual construction or a poetic creation, owing to the lack of documentation in contemporaneous Babylonian sources. There is also no mention of Nebuchadnezzar's wife Amyitis (or any other wives), SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
although a political marriage to a Median or Persian would not have been unusual.[15] Herodotus, writing about Babylon closest in time to Nebuchadnezzar II, does not mention the Hanging Gardens in his Histories. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens.[7] It is possible that evidence exists beneath the Euphrates, which cannot be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its current position during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
and little is known about the western portion of Babylon.[16] Rollinger has suggested that Berossus attributed the Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar for political reasons, and that he had adopted the legend from elsewhere.[17] Toshiba Satellite L675D-S7047 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A recent theory proposes that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually constructed by the Assyrianking Sennacherib (reigned 704 – 681 BC) for his palace at Nineveh. Stephanie Dalley posits that during the intervening centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive gardens at Sennacherib's palace were attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II's Babylon.[18] HP Pavilion dv7-4170ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Recently discovered evidence includes excavation of a vast system of aqueducts inscribed to Sennacherib, which Dalley proposes were part of a 50-mile (80 km) series of canals, dams, aqueducts, used to carry water to Nineveh with water-raising screws used to raise it to the upper levels of the gardens.[19] HP Pavilion dv4-1506tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Dalley bases her arguments on recent developments in the decipherment of contemporary Akkadian inscriptions. Her main points are:[20]
King Sennacherib's Hanging Garden was considered a World Wonder not just for its beauty – a year-round oasis of lush green in a dusty summer landscape – but also for the marvellous feats of water engineering that maintained the garden.[30] Compaq Presario CQ61-411WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
There was a tradition of Assyrian royal garden building. King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) describes what he had done:
"I dug out a canal from the (river) Upper Zab, cutting through a mountain peak, and called it the Abundance Canal. I watered the meadows of the Tigris and planted orchards with all kinds of fruit trees in the vicinity. IBM FRU 46L4753 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I planted seeds and plants that I had found in the countries through which I had marched and in the highlands which I had crossed: pines of different kinds, cypresses and junipers of different kinds, almonds, dates, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, HP Pavilion dv6-3190sf Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
tamarisk, walnut, terebinth and ash, fir, pomegranate, pear, quince, fig, grapevine.... The canal water gushes from above into the garden; fragrance pervades the walkways, streams of water as numerous as the stars of heaven flow in the pleasure garden.... Like a squirrel I pick fruit in the garden of delights..." SONY Vaio VGN-FZ21E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
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Sennacherib is the only Mesopotamian king who has left a record of his love for his wife – a key part of the romantic classical story:
"And for Tashmetu-sharrat the palace woman, my beloved wife, whose features the Mistress of the Gods has made perfect above all other women, I had a palace of loveliness, delight and joy built..." HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Sennacherib's palace was comparable in size to Windsor Castle in England. He specifically mentions the massive limestone blocks that reinforce the flood defences. Parts of the palace were excavated by Austin Henry Layard in the mid-19th century. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
His citadel plan shows contours which would be consistent with Sennacherib's garden, but its position has not been confirmed. Unfortunately the area has been used as a military base in recent times, making it difficult to investigate further. DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard
A sculptured wall panel of Assurbanipal shows the garden in its maturity. There is one original panel[31] and the drawing of another[32] in the British Museum, although neither is on public display. Several features mentioned by the classical authors are discernible on these contemporary images. ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
The irrigation of such a garden demanded an upgraded water supply to the city of Nineveh. The canals stretched over 50 km into the mountains. Sennacherib was proud of the technologies he had employed, and describes them in some detail on his inscriptions. For example: HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
At the headwater of Bavian (Khinnis)[33] his inscription mentions automatic sluice gates but does not say how they worked:
"The sluice gate of that canal opens without a spade or a shovel and lets the waters of abundance flow.: its sluice gate is not opened by the labour of men's hands, but by the will of the gods." TOSHIBA Qosmio F20 Series Laptop Keyboard
An enormous aqueduct crossing the valley at Jerwan was constructed of over 2 million dressed stones. It used stone arches and waterproof cement.[34] On it is written:
"Sennacherib king of the world king of Assyria. Over a great distance I had a watercourse directed to the environs of Nineveh, joining together the waters.... Over steep-sided valleys I spanned an aqueduct of white limestone blocks, I made those waters flow over it." HP Pavilion dv3-2310ea Laptop Keyboard
He claims to be the first to deploy a new casting technique in place of the "lost-wax" process for his monumental (30 tonne) bronze castings, and describes the making of his water screws: DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
"Whereas in former times the kings my forefathers had created bronze statues imitating real-life forms to put on display inside temples, but in their method of work they had exhausted all the craftsmen, for lack of skill and failure to understand the principles they needed so much oil, HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
wax and tallow for the work that they caused a shortage in their own countries – I Sennacherib, leader of all princes, knowledgeable in all kinds of work, took much advice and deep thought over doing that kind of work.... I created clay moulds as if by divine intelligence for cylinders and screws... In order to draw up water all day long, SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
I had ropes, bronze wires and bronze chains made. And instead of a shaduf I set up the cylinders and screws of copper over cisterns....I raised the height of the surroundings of the palace, to be a Wonder for all Peoples... HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
A high garden imitating the Amanus mountains I laid out next to it, with all kinds of aromatic plants, orchard fruit trees, trees that enrich not only mountain country but also Chaldea (Babylonia), as well as trees that bear wool, planted within it"TOSHIBA Satellite L775-S7130 laptop keyboard
Sennacherib could bring the water into his garden at a high level because it was sourced from further up the mountains. He then raised the water even higher by deploying his new water screws. SONY Vaio PCG-K415B laptop keyboard
This meant he could build a garden that towered into the sky with large trees on the top of the terraces – a stunning artistic effect that surpassed those of his predecessors and which justifies his own claim to have built a "Wonder for all Peoples".TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5359 laptop keyboard
Epigraphy (from the Greek: ἐπιγραφή epi-graphē, literally "on-writing", "inscription"[1]) is the study ofinscriptions or epigraphs as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers. HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a documentand the artistic value of a literary composition.
A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist. Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
For example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and finding any relevant circumstances. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
It is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practiced by the same person. Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
An epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme (such as marks on a pot that abbreviate the name of the merchant who shipped commodities in the pot) to a lengthy document (such as a treatise, IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
a work of literature, or a hagiographic prescription). Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as NUMISMATICS or PALAEOGRAPHY. When compared to books, most inscriptions are short. The media and the forms of the graphemes are diverse: TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8906 laptop keyboard
engravings in stone or metal, scratches on rock, impressions in wax, embossing on cast metal, cameo or intaglio on precious stones, painting on ceramic or in fresco. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, such as the baking of a clay tablet in a conflagration. Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
Epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the auxiliary sciences of history. Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery: epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary. Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
The study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, PALAEOGRAPHY.
The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a matter quite separate from the nature of the text, which is studied in itself. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are essentially different from the written texts of each culture. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
Not all inscribed texts are public, however: inMycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of "Linear B" were revealed to be largely used for economic and administrative record keeping. Informal inscribed texts are "graffiti" in its original sense. ACER KB.T3007.001 laptop keyboard
History
The science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first. Individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius (1516–1571); August Wilhelm Zumpt (1815–1877); DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903); Emil Hübner (1834–1901); Franz Cumont (1868–1947); Louis Robert (1904–1985).
The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has been published in Berlin since 1863, with wartime interruptions. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S9513BN laptop keyboard
It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions. New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically: all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6. This volume has the greatest number of inscriptions; volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published (2000). SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, not unlike the biologists' Zoological Record— the raw material of history. HP Pavilion dv6-3131tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. There are two. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin, 1825-1877. This marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world. HP 622029-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Only advanced students still consult it, for better editions of the texts have superseded it. The second, modern corpus is Inscriptiones Graecae arranged geographically under categories: decrees, catalogues, honorary titles, funeral inscriptions, various., all presented in Latin, to preserve the international neutrality of the field of classics. SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
Other such series include the Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum (Etruscan inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Crucesignatorum Terrae Sanctae (Crusaders' inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum, (Celtic inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum (Iranian inscriptions) and so forth. SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
Egyptian hieroglyphs were solved using the Rosetta Stone, which was a multilingual stele in Classical Greek, Demotic Egyptian and Classical Egyptian hieroglyphs. The work was done by the French scholar, Jean-François Champollion, and the British scientist Thomas Young. DELL NSK-D8C01 laptop keyboard
The interpretation of Maya hieroglyphs was lost as a result of the Spanish Conquest of Central America. However, recent work by Maya epigraphers and linguists has yielded a considerable amount of information on this complex writing system.[2] Acer eMachines G730Z laptop keyboard
Inscriptions were commonly incised on stone or marble, on metal, or on wood (though this last material has hardly ever survived, except in Egypt), or on terracotta. In Egypt and Mesopotamia hard stones were frequently used for the purpose, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
and the inscriptions are therefore well preserved and easy to read. In Greece the favourite material, especially in Athens, was white marble, which takes an admirably clear lettering, but is liable to weathering of the surface if exposed, SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
and to wear if rebuilt into pavements or similar structures. Many other kinds of stone, both hard and soft, were often used, especially crystalline limestones, which do not easily take a smooth surface, and which, therefore, are often difficult to decipher, owing to accidental marks or roughness of the material. [3] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
The metal most commonly used for inscriptions was bronze: flat tablets of this were often made for affixing to the walls of temples and other buildings. Occasionally such tablets were made of silver or gold; and inscriptions were often incised on vessels made of any of these metals. Inscriptions on metal were nearly always incised, not cast. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
An important class of inscriptions are the legends on coins; these were struck from the die. (cf. NUMISMATICS.) Clay was very extensively used for inscriptions in Mesopotamia and in Crete. In this case the symbols were incised or impressed on specially prepared tablets when the clay was soft, and it was subsequently hardened by fire. Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard
In Greece, many inscriptions on vases were painted before firing, in that case often having reference to the scenes represented, or incised after firing; potsherds (ostraka) were often used as a cheap writing material. Inscriptions were also often impressed from a mould upon wet clay before firing, in the case of tiles, Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
amphora handles, etc., and in these cases often supply valuable information as to the buildings to which they belong or the place from which they took their origin.[3]
The tools used for making inscriptions varied with the material; SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard
most of them were some kind of chisel, usually with a square blade; early inscriptions were sometimes made on hard rock by successive blows with a punch or pointed hammer. Sometimes a circular punch was used for O or a letter of which O formed a part. TOSHIBA Satellite M35X-S161 laptop keyboard
Styles of Cutting
Early inscriptions, which are often amateur work, are frequently very irregular in their cutting. But in almost all examples of later work, the inscriptions are evidently cut by professionals, and there are definite styles and methods belonging to various places and periods. In Egypt, for instance, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
the HIEROGLYPHS are carefully and delicately cut in early times, and in later periods become more careless and conventional. In Greece, the best work was done in the 5th and 4th centuries BC in Athens; the letters were all exact and regular in shape, HP Pavilion dv5-1095eo laptop keyboard
with no adventitious ornaments, and were, especially in the 5th century, usually exactly aligned with the letters above and below, as well as those on each side. At that time all the strokes were made of equal thickness, but in the 4th century BC and later there came in the custom of holding the chisel obliquely to the surface, SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
thus producing a wedge-shaped stroke. A similar custom in Mesopotamia gave rise to the so-called CUNEIFORM system. On metal inscriptions in Greece this same effect appears earlier than stone or marble. IBM 42T4026 laptop keyboard
In the 3rd century and later it becomes common to introduce apices or ornamental ends to the strokes, a custom which prevails to the present day in our ordinary capital letters. The custom of making different strokes and different parts of curves of varying thickness became common in Roman inscriptions, which developed a monumental style of their own, HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
varying from period to period. Inscriptions can often be approximately dated by the style of the cutting as well as by the shapes of the letters; skill in doing this can only be acquired by a careful and minute study of originals and facsimiles. HP 6730S laptop keyboard
(cf. DATING METHODOLOGIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY.)
Inscriptions vary greatly in size according to the position where they were intended to be read, their purpose, and the skill of the cutter. Some inscriptions are of great length, the longest, a statement of accounts of the temple at Delos, under Athenian administration, being nearly half as long as a book ofThucydides; and many other inscriptions approach this in length.[3] Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Symbols and Forms of Writing
The ORIGIN OF WRITING and the evolution fo the ALPHABET are discussed elsewhere in the specific Wikipedia articles upon those subjects. For the present purpose it is sufficient to note that most of the forms of writing known to us originated in some system of picture-writing (cf. also PICTOGRAPHY, which developed into a hieroglyphic system. HP Pavilion dv6-2016ax Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Such systems appear to have originated independently in different parts of the world — in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, among the Hittites and inChina and America. The evidence for all of these is mainly to be found in inscriptions. SONY Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The development from Ideographs(or direct representation of an object or idea) to symbols of phonetic value, and so to syllabaries or alphabets, took place in many different systems to various degrees. HP Pavilion dv7-6b55dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
But the first people to invent a completely alphabetic system of writing were the Phoenicians, from whom the Greeks borrowed it with certain modifications and improvements. From the Greeks was derived the Latin, and from the two all the alphabets of European peoples. It is still a matter of dispute whether the Phoenician was derived from the Egyptian. APPLE MacBook Pro 15 inch MA610LL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The hieroglyphic symbols naturally tended to be conventionalised and simplified for convenience of cutting, in accordance with the materials and tools employed. In many cases they developed from a pictorial to a linear form. It is possible that some of these linear forms may not be derived from hieroglyphs, but from purely conventional geometrical forms. HP G71-340US Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
such as widely used at all periods and places as owners' or masons' marks. The tendency of linear forms to become wedge-shaped is most conspicuous in cuneiform, but as has been noticed, the same tendency occurs in Greek inscriptions incised on bronze. HP Pavilion dv7-6166nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In the north of Europe the OGHAM inscriptions are alphabetic, and are apparently an independent invention on arbitrary lines, like the Morse code; but Runes, which were extensively used in the same region, are derived from the Greek or the Latin alphabets. HP Pavilion dv6-3050et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In most alphabetic systems there are also found in inscriptions certain symbols which are not strictly alphabetic or phonetic in character. The commonest of these are the various systems of numerals that are used in different times and places. It is impossible here to give any full description of these different systems; Dell Vostro 3500 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
but a brief account may be given of the principles underlying them. Most of them are based upon a decimal system, doubtless owing to the habit of counting on the fingers. In some cases the symbols are simple and obvious, as in the Cretan script, HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
where circles (or rhombi), dots and lines are used for hundreds, tens and units, each being repeated as often as necessary; and a similar system for the lower denominations is used at Epidaurus in the 4th century BC. In Athens the usual system was to indicate each denomination by its initial, M for Μύριοι (10,000), X for χίλιοι (1,000), HP Pavilion dv5-2135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
H for εκατόν (100), Δ for δέκα (10), π for πεντε (5) and I for units. The other Greek system followed that derived from the Phoenicians, using the letters of the alphabet in their conventional order from one to nine, 10 to 90 and 100 to 900; in this arrangement obsolete letters were retained in their original places so as to give the requisite number of 27 symbols. HP Pavilion dv7t-6100 CTO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Roman system of numerals — M, D, C, L, X, V, I (for 1,000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 5 and 1) is generally supposed to have arisen from the adaptation of those symbols in the Greek alphabet which the Romans did not want; an alternative theory is that it is simplified from a series of ideographsrepresenting the spread hand, the fingers and so on.[3] Compaq Presario CQ61-435SA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Apart from numerals, the use of initials in the place of complete words was not common in early times. It became, however, very frequent in Roman inscriptions, which sometimes are made up almost entirely of such abbreviations and can only be understood by those familiar with the formulae. ASUS M51SE Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A list of the commonest of these will be found under LIST OF CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS.Compendia or monograms also occur in later Greek and Roman times, and become very common and very difficult to interpret in early Christian and Byzantine inscriptions.
Some kind of punctuation is often found in inscriptions of all kinds. HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In Greek inscriptions a vertical line or a dot, or dots, sometimes indicates the separation between sentences or words, but words are seldom separated by spaces as in modern printing, so that the text is continuous and no division of words exists.This is particularly the case with Greek inscriptions of the best period. HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
In Roman inscriptions it was usual to separate the words by dots. In certain inscriptions a cross ( ) was used to indicate the beginning of an inscription, especially when its direction was erratic. Christian inscriptions sometimes begin with a cross, which doubtless had a symbolic meaning; and a leaf or other device was often placed at the end.
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The letters or symbols may be arranged vertically below one another, and read from top to bottom, or horizontally, either from right to left or from left to right; they may also be arranged in a kind of pattern — in which case their order may be indeterminate, HP G71-343US laptop keyboard
or in a wandering or curved line, or left to right and right to left alternately (boustrophedon, or as an ox in ploughing). Most Semitic alphabets, including Phoenician, read from right to left; and the earliest Greek inscriptions follow the same direction. But the direction from left to right became regular in Greece after the 6th century BC, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
and consequently is adopted by the Romans and in all European systems. The individual letters or symbols usually face in the same direction as the writing, as a whole.[3]
The position or place of inscriptions depends greatly upon their purpose or intention. When they have a direct relation to the sculptures, reliefs or paintings with which they are associated, TOSHIBA Satellite l20-101 Laptop Keyboard
they often form a kind of pattern to fill the background or vacant spaces between the figures; but sometimes, especially in Mesopotamian statues or reliefs, they are cut right across the figures without any regard to the artistic effect. HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
In late Greek or Roman work it is usual to cut any inscription relative to a statue or relief upon the basis on which this is mounted; but short inscriptions such as dedications or artists' signatures are often placed in some inconspicuous position upon the work itself. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
In the case of painted vases, the inscriptions relative to the subject represented are usually painted; but dedications and other inscriptions are often incised after the vase has been fired.
In Egypt, inscriptions were often inscribed or painted upon inner walls of tombs, whether they referred to religious belief or ritual, or to the honours and possessions of the deceased; Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
they were intended for his benefit and convenience rather than for the information of others, so as to perpetuate his familiar surroundings, not to make him live in the memory of his successors. The information which we derive from such inscriptions is invaluable to us; but such was not the intention with which they were made. HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
On the other hand, inscriptions which were intended to be seen by the public and to perpetuate a record of events, or to supply useful information, were usually placed in places of common resort, above all in temples and sacred precincts. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
Sometimes they were cut on convenient rock faces, sometimes upon the walls of temples or other buildings. Most frequently the slabs of marble (stelae), stone metal or other material upon which the inscriptions were incised were set up in convenient positions to be read, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
in any places of public resort. This was the method of publication of all laws, decrees and official notices, of treaties and contracts, of honours to officials or private citizens, of religious dedications and prescriptions of ritual. Inscribed tombstones were set up over graves, which were usually placed along the chief roads leading out of a town, HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
the most familiar example being the sacred way from Athens to Eleusis. Inscriptions commemorative of victories or other great events were only in exceptional cases erected upon the spot; more often such memorials were set up in some great religious centre such as Delphi or Olympia. But boundary stones were necessarily placed on the line which they defined.[3] HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
The study of inscriptions supplies an important contribution to the history of many lands and peoples. In some cases, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, it forms almost the only source of information in the absence of literary records; in others, as in Greece and Rome, it offers a most valuable supplement and comment to what is otherwise recorded. TOSHIBA K000097460 Laptop Keyboard
Both Egyptian and Mesopotamian inscriptions go back to an extremely early date; it is at present uncertain which is the earlier, but both show, before 3500 BC and possibly much earlier, a complete, organised system of writing which implies many centuries of development behind it. The Egyptian hieroglyphic system, as used in inscriptions, HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
continued without any essential change of character until Roman times, though various systems of hieratic modification were used at different times. On the famous Rosetta Stone, in the British Museum, which first gave the clue to the interpretation of Egyptian writing, hieroglyphic, SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard
hieratic and Greek versions of the same decree are given side by side. Its date is 195 BC. The Mesopotamian linear symbols developed mainly for technical reasons, into a wedge-shaped or cuneiform system, which was adopted in modified forms and applied to different languages through some thousands of years, Sumerian, Babylonian, Dell Latitude E6500 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Assyrianand Persian, until it was superseded, after the conquests of Alexander, by Greek. An independent hieroglyphic system, which also developed into various linear scripts, existed in Crete during the Middle and Late Minoan periods, from about 3000, probably, SONY Vaio VGN-NR120Q Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
to the fall of Knossos, about 1500 BC. The Hittite hieroglyphs correspond to the period of the Hittite empire inNorthern Syria and Asia Minor from about 2000 to 800 BC; from it, according to one theory, arose the Cypriot syllabary, which continued in use until the 4th century BC or later.[3] Toshiba Satellite A205-S5879 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The earliest Phoenician inscriptions known date from about the 10th century BC, and the alphabet remained in use down to the 3rd century BC. It was modified and adopted by the Greeks at an uncertain date; the earliest Greek inscriptions are generally dated in the 7th century BC. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Nebuchadnezzar II ( i/nɛbjʉkədˈnɛzər/; Aramaic: ܢܵܒܘܼ ܟܘܼܕܘܼܪܝܼ ܐܘܼܨܘܼܪ ; Hebrew: נְבוּכַדְנֶצַּר Nəḇūḵaḏneṣṣar; Ancient Greek:Ναβουχοδονόσωρ Naboukhodonósôr; Arabic: نِبُوخَذنِصَّر nibūḫaḏniṣṣar; SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
c 634 – 562 BC) was king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, who reigned c. 605 BC – 562 BC. He is credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and for the destruction of the First Temple. He is featured in the Book of Daniel and is mentioned in several other books of theBible. Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
The Akkadian name, Nabû-kudurri-uṣur, means "O god Nabu, preserve/defend my firstborn son". Nabu is the Babylonian deity of wisdom, and son of the god Marduk. In an inscription, Nebuchadnezzar styles himself as Nabu's "beloved" and "favourite".[2][3] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
His name has previously beeNebuchadnezzar was the oldest son and successor of Nabopolassar, who delivered Babylon from its three centuries of vassalage to its fellow Mesopotamian stateAssyria, and in alliance with the Medes, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians, laid Nineveh in ruins. HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
According to Berossus, some years before he became king of Babylon, Babylonian dynasties were united. There are conflicting accounts of Nitocris of Babylon being either his wife or daughter.
Nabopolassar was intent on annexing the western provinces of Syria (ancient Aram) from Necho II (whose own dynasty had been installed as vassals of Assyria, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
and who was still hoping to help restore Assyrian power), and to this end dispatched his son westward with a large army. In the ensuing Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC, the Egyptian and Assyrian army was defeated and driven back, and the region of Syria and Phoenicia were brought under the control of Babylon. Nabopolassar died in August that year, and Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon to ascend to the throne. HP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
n mistakenly interpreted as "O Nabu, defend my kudurru",[4] in which sense akudurru is an inscribed stone deed of property. However, when contained in a ruler's title, kudurru approximates to "firstborn son" or "oldest son".[5] GATEWAY 101974 laptop keyboard
Variations of the Hebrew form include נְבוּכַדְנֶאצַּר and נְבוּכַדְרֶאצַּר (Nəḇuḵaḏreṣṣar). He is also known as Bakhat Nasar, which means "winner of the fate", or literally, "fate winner".[citation needed] HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
After the defeat of the Cimmerians and Scythians, previous allies in the defeat of Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar's expeditions were directed westward, although the powerful Median empire lay to the north. Nebuchadnezzar's political marriage to Amytis of Media, the daughter of the Median king, had ensured peace between the two empires. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
Nebuchadnezzar engaged in several military campaigns designed to increase Babylonian influence in Aramea (modern Syria) andJudah. An attempted invasion of Egypt in 601 BC was met with setbacks, however, leading to numerous rebellions among thePhoenician and Canaanite states of the Levant, including Judah. ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with these rebellions, capturingJerusalem in 597 BC and deposing King Jehoiakim, then in 587 BC due to rebellion, destroying both the city and the temple, and deporting many of the prominent citizens along with a sizable portion of the Jewish population of Judea to Babylon.[6] SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
These events are described in the Prophets (Nevi'im) and Writings (Ketuvim), sections of the Hebrew Bible (in the books 2 Kings and Jeremiah, and 2 Chronicles, respectively). After the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar engaged in a thirteen-year siege of Tyre (circa 586–573) which ended in a compromise, with the Tyrians accepting Babylonian authority.[7][8] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Following the pacification of the Phoenician state of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar turned again to Egypt. A clay tablet,[9] now in the British Museum, states: "In the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the country of Babylon, he went to Mitzraim(Egypt) to wage war. Amasis, king of Egypt, collected [his army], and marched and spread abroad." DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
Having completed the subjugation of Phoenicia, and a campaign against Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar set himself to rebuild and adorn the city of Babylon, and constructed canals, aqueducts, temples and reservoirs. HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
According to Babylonian tradition, towards the end of his life, Nebuchadnezzar prophesied the impending ruin of the Chaldean Dynasty (Berossus and Abydenus inEusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 9.41). He died in Babylon between the second and sixth months of the forty-third year of his reign, and was succeeded by Amel-Marduk. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
During the last century of Nineveh's existence, Babylon had been greatly devastated, not only at the hands of Sennacherib andAssurbanipal, but also as a result of her ever renewed rebellions. Nebuchadnezzar, continuing his father's work of reconstruction, aimed at making his capital one of the world's wonders. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730F laptop keyboard
Old temples were restored; new edifices of incredible magnificence were erected to the many gods of the Babylonian pantheon (Diodorus of Sicily, 2.95; Herodotus, 1.183). To complete the royal palace begun by Nabopolassar, nothing was spared, neither "cedar-wood, nor bronze, gold, silver, rare and precious stones";[10] HP Pavilion DV7-3112tx laptop keyboard
an underground passage and a stone bridge connected the two parts of the city separated by the Euphrates; the city itself was rendered impregnable by the construction of a triple line of walls. The bridge across the Euphrates is of particular interest, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5107 laptop keyboard
in that it was supported on asphalt covered brick piers that were streamlined to reduce the upstream resistance to flow, and the downstream turbulence that would otherwise undermine the foundations. Nebuchadnezzar's construction activity was not confined to the capital; he is credited with the restoration of the Lake ofSippar, GATEWAY P-6825 laptop keyboard
the opening of a port on the Persian Gulf, and the building of the Mede wall between the Tigris and the Euphrates to protect the country against incursions from the north. These undertakings required a considerable number of laborers; Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
an inscription at the great temple of Marduk suggests that the labouring force used for his public works was most likely made up of captives brought from various parts of western Asia.
Nebuchadnezzar is credited by Berossus with the construction of the Hanging Gardens, for his homesick wife Amyitis (or Amytis) to remind her of her homeland, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Medis (Media) in Persia. He is also credited for the construction of the Ishtar Gate, one of the eight gates leading into the city of Babylon.[11] However, some scholars argue that the Gardens may have been constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in his capital city, Nineveh.[12][13] SONY VAIO VGN-AR770 laptop keyboard
Nebuchadnezzar is widely known through his portrayal in the Bible, especially the Book of Daniel. The Bible discusses events of his reign and his conquest of Jerusalem. The second chapter of Daniel relates an account attributed to the second year of his reign, in which Nebuchadnezzar dreams of a huge image made of various materials (gold, silver, bronze, iron and clay). Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
The prophet Daniel tells him God's interpretation, that it stands for the rise and fall of world powers, starting with Nebuchadnezzar's own as the golden head.
In Daniel chapter 3, Nebuchadnezzar erects a large idol made of gold for worship during a public ceremony on the plain of Dura. When three Jews, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (respectively renamed Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by their captors, to facilitate their assimilation into Babylonian culture), refuse to take part, he has them cast into a fiery furnace. They are protected by what Nebuchadnezzar describes as "a son of the gods" (Daniel 3:25 NIV) and emerge unscathed without even the smell of smoke.[14] GATEWAY NX570X laptop keyboard
Daniel chapter 4 contains an account of Nebuchadnezzar's dream about an immense tree, which Daniel interprets to mean that Nebuchadnezzar will go insane for seven years because of his pride. The chapter is written from the perspective of king Nebuchadnezzar. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
While boasting about his achievements, Nebuchadnezzar is humbled by God. The king loses his sanity and lives in the wild like an animal for seven years. After this, his sanity and position are restored and he praises and honors God. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Theologians have interpreted this story in several ways. Origen attributed the metamorphosis as a representation of the fall of Lucifer, Bodin and Cluvier maintained it was a metamorphosis of both soul and body,Tertullian confined the transformation to the body only, without the loss of reason, cases of which Augustine stated were reported in Italy, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
but gave them little credit. Gaspard Peucer asserted that the transformation of men into wolves was common in Livonia. Some Jewish Rabbins asserted there was an exchange of souls between the man and ox, while others argued for an apparent or docetic change which was not real. HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
The most generally received opinion, which was also held by Jerome, was that the madman was under the influence of hypochondriachal monomania by which God could humble the pride of kings.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-CR31S Laptop Keyboard
There has been speculation by modern writers that the Biblical account might preserve memories of an illness that had a natural organic cause. Some consider it to have been an attack of clinical lycanthropy or alternatively porphyria.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Psychologist Henry Gleitman has claimed that Nebuchadnezzar's insanity was a result of general paresis or paralytic dementia seen in advanced cases of syphilis.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S Laptop Keyboard
Some scholars [18] think that Nebuchadnezzar's portrayal by Daniel is a mixture of traditions about Nebuchadnezzar and about Nabonidus (Nabuna'id) who became confused with him. For example, Nabonidus was the natural, or paternal father of Belshazzar, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and the seven years of insanity could be related to Nabonidus' sojourn in Tayma in the desert. Fragments from the Dead Sea Scrolls, written from 150 BC to 70 AD [19] state that it was Nabonidus (N-b-n-y) who was smitten by God with a fever for seven years of his reign while his son Belshazzar was regent. HP G60-249WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Book of Jeremiah contains a prophecy about the arising of a "destroyer of nations", commonly regarded as a reference to Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 4:7),[20] as well as an account of Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem and looting and destruction of the temple (Jer. 52). IBM MCF-C10AM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
says "Helel ben Shaḥar" ("the shining one, son of the dawn").[21] It is a taunting prophecy against an oppressive king.[22] In Isaiah 14,[23] the king is being mocked, as he is struck through with a sword, killed, and thrown into a common grave. SONY Vaio VPC-EB42FM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Mainstream Christianity attributes this passage to the fall of Luciferbecause verse 20 says that this king will not be joined with the others in burial, but rather be cast out of the grave. "Helel ben Shaḥar" may refer to theMorning Star, but Isaiah gives no indication that Helel is a star.[24] HP Mini 110-3120ss Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
According to Tabari, Nebuchadnezzar, whose Persian name was Bukhtrashah, was of Persian descent, from the progeny of Jūdharz. Some believe he lived as long as 300 years.[25] While much of what is written about Nebuchadnezzar depicts a ruthless warrior, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
some texts show a ruler who was concerned with both spiritual and moral issues in life and was seeking divine guidance.[26]
Nebuchadnezzar was seen as a strong, conquering force in Islamic texts and historical compilations, like Tabari. The Babylonian leader used force and destruction to grow an empire. He conquered kingdom after kingdom, including Phoenicia, Toshiba AB7005HX-SB3 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Philistia, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Jerusalem, and more.[27] The most notable events that Tabari’s collection focuses on is the destruction of Jerusalem.[28]
Nebuchadnezzar was sent from Balkh by Luhrāsb, a Persian ruler, to defeat the Jews in Jerusalem. Some sources believe that Luhrāsb’s son, Bahman, HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
is the one who sent Nebuchadnezzar to exile the Jews from Jerusalem.[29] According to one source in Tabari, at the time Nebuchadnezzar was summoned to defeat Jerusalem, he was finishing a peace agreement with the people of Damascus. Because of this, HP 3MLX8TATP20 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
he sent an officer to ease the tension in Jerusalem and create a peace treaty. The officer successfully met with the king of Jerusalem and made a peace treaty. As was custom for the Babylonians, HP Pavilion dv2820es Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
the officer took hostages with him as and began the return journey to Nebuchadnezzar. When the officer reached Tiberias, he heard that the Israelites had revolted against their king and killed him because the king had given the Babylonians hostages. HP Pavilion dv6-3052nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The hostages were then beheaded and Nebuchadnezzar made his way to Jerusalem. Most of the sources agree that Nebuchadnezzar was sent to Jerusalem by God to punish the Jews for their sinful behavior.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-3034nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
After Nebuchadnezzar ravaged the town, killing and enslaving the people, he came upon the prophet Jeremiah in a prison. He had been jailed for about three years because God told him what Nebuchadnezzar would do to Jerusalem. SONY VAIO PCG-6L2L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
He tried to warn the Israelites and told them to repent, but they jailed him instead. God sent an angel to ask Jeremiah if the Israelites must be destroyed and Jeremiah agrees, beginning the attack by Nebuchadnezzar. When Jeremiah reveals all of this to Nebuchadnezzar, HP Pavilion dv7-6107tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
he replies, “Wretched people, they defied their Lord’s messenger” 10. He then released Jeremiah. This encounter gives evidence that there were still many different gods being worshiped, as Nebuchadnezzar does not refer to God as his own god, and displays a sort of interfaith understanding between religions. HP 495079-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Nebuchadnezzar does not worship the God of Christianity but Marduk, a Babylonian god most often related to judgement.[30][31] Nebuchadnezzar has respect for Jeremiah and his beliefs[32] that allows Jeremiah to be an ally and help Nebuchadnezzar with policy.[33] HP Pavilion dv7-6135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Nebuchadnezzar then goes on to attack Egypt. After releasing Jeremiah from prison, the remaining Israelites apologized to Jeremiah but still do not listen to him when he tells them to stay in Jerusalem. SONY Vaio VGN-NW280F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
They instead flee to Egypt, where the king takes them in even after Nebuchadnezzar has asked that they be returned. Nebuchadnezzar then conquers Egypt and moves further north in Africa before returning home with treasures and hoards of slaves. Nebuchadnezzar’s victories display the period of growth that Babylonians were experiencing. Dell Vostro 3750 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Every new victory resulted in a further accumulation of wealth and prisoners of war, both of which were used to strengthen the empire even more. It is also suggested that Nebuchadnezzar took royals hostage but treated them well so that when they were released, they would be supportive and complimentary of the Babylonian Empire.[34] HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
After Nebuchadnezzar leaves, there is a disconnect between the sources. One says that Jeremiah speaks to God, who tells him that the city will be rebuilt. He then puts Jeremiah to sleep for a hundred years. The Israelites return and begin to rebuild the city and then God wakes Jeremiah from his slumber.[35] HP Pavilion G61-631NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other sources say that Nebuchadnezzar puts Zedekiah in power. Jeremiah provides support and counsel to Zedekiah for the two years he is in charge because Zedekiah knows that the city is doomed.[36] Jeremiah stays by his side, realizing that it is better to be Babylon’s ally than enemy. After ruling for two years, Toshiba Satellite A50-111 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Zedekiah tried to make an alliance with Egypt, leading to his demise.[37] Nebuchadnezzar puts an end to the alliance and the cities. Toshiba Satellite A205-S5804 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Some accounts say that Bahman took over after Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem, eventually passing off the power to Cyrus. These accounts do not say a lot about Nebuchadnezzar or make him seem as powerful. HP Pavilion dv8229ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Yet another source say that God let Nebuchadnezzar rule as long as he wanted. Near the end of his reign, and life, Nebuchadnezzar has a dream but he cannot remember it when he awakes. He calls Daniel to pray and talk to God to figure out what he had dreamed. He comes back and tells Nebuchadnezzar about his dream: He saw a statue, DELL Studio 1450 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
made up of many different materials. The feet were formed out of clay and the materials got stronger and stronger the higher they were on the body, with the head and neck being made from iron. These different substances symbolized the different reigns of rulers. DELL Studio 1458 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Then, a rock was sent down from heaven and smashed the statue. This was meant to symbolize God sending a prophet to smash the reign of Nebuchadnezzar.[38] Soon after this, Nebuchadnezzar addressed the Israelites. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad W500 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
He talked about how powerful he was, so powerful that he had destroyed God’s house and people and that when he died, he would take over God’s kingdom. God, having heard this, pitied his people. He allowed them to return to Judea and multiply. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
One of the captives, Ezra, was distraught about the fact that the Israelites’ scripture had been destroyed with the temple. God returns the scripture to him and his people[39] and the Israelites live on under their own leadership. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one whose location has not been definitely established.
Traditionally they were said to have been built in the ancient city of Babylon, near present-day Hillah,Babil province, in Iraq. The Babylonian priest Berossus, HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard
writing in about 290 BC and quoted later byJosephus, attributed the gardens to the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled between 605 and 562 BC. There are no extant Babylonian texts which mention the gardens, and no definitive archaeological evidence has been found in Babylon.[1][2] SONY V072078AS1 Laptop Keyboard
One legend says that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were created by Emperor Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylon, for his Persian wife, Queen Amytis, because she missed the green hills and valleys of her homeland. Emperor Nebuchadnezzar II also built a grand palace that came to be known as 'The Marvel of the Mankind' or ('Al A'akheed vach altira'av chad') . HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Because of the lack of evidence it has been suggested that the Hanging Gardens are purely legendary, and the descriptions found in ancient Greek and Roman writers including Strabo, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus represent a romantic ideal of an eastern garden.[3] If it did indeed exist, it was destroyed sometime after first century AD.[4][5] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard
Alternatively, the original garden may have been a well-documented one that the Assyrian king Sennacherib(704-681 BC) built in his capital city of Nineveh on the River Tigris near the modern city of Mosul.[6] SONY Vaio PCG-K86P Laptop Keyboard
In ancient writings the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were first described by Berossus, a Babylonian priestof Marduk who wrote around 290 BC, although his books are known only from quotations by later authors (e.g., Flavius Josephus). HP Pavilion dm1-1010sa Laptop Keyboard
There are five principal writers (including Berossus) whose descriptions of Babylon are extant in some form today. These writers concern themselves with the size of the Hanging Gardens, why and how they were built, and how the gardens were irrigated. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Josephus (ca. 37–100 AD) quoted Berossus (writing ca. 290 BC), when he described the gardens.[7] Berossus described the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, and is the only writer to credit that king with the construction of the Hanging Gardens.[8] SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
In this palace he erected very high walks, supported by stone pillars; and by planting what was called a pensile paradise, and replenishing it with all sorts of trees, he rendered the prospect an exact resemblance of a mountainous country. This he did to gratify his queen, because she had been brought up in Media, and was fond of a mountainous situation.[9] ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
Diodorus Siculus (active ca. 60–30 BC) seems to have consulted the early 4th century BC texts of Ctesias of Cnidus for his description of the Hanging Gardens:
There was also, beside the acropolis, the Hanging Garden, as it is called, which was built, not by Semiramis, but by a later Syrian king to please one of his concubines; ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard
for she, they say, being a Persian by race and longing for the meadows of her mountains, asked the king to imitate, through the artifice of a planted garden, the distinctive landscape of Persia. The park extended four plethra on each side, and since the approach to the garden sloped like a hillside and the several parts of the structure rose from one another tier on tier, SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
the appearance of the whole resembled that of a theatre. When the ascending terraces had been built, there had been constructed beneath them galleries which carried the entire weight of the planted garden and rose little by little one above the other along the approach; and the uppermost gallery, HP 506782-001 Laptop Keyboard
which was fifty cubits high, bore the highest surface of the park, which was made level with the circuit wall of the battlements of the city. Furthermore, the walls, which had been constructed at great expense, HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
were twenty-two feet thick, while the passage-way between each two walls was ten feet wide. The roof above these beams had first a layer of reeds laid in great quantities of bitumen, over this two courses of baked brick bonded by cement, and as a third layer of covering of lead, to the end that the moisture from the soil might not penetrate beneath. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
On all this again earth had been piled to a depth sufficient for the roots of the largest trees; and the ground, when levelled off, was thickly planted with trees of every kind that, by their great size or other charm, could give pleasure to the beholder. And since the galleries, each projecting beyond another, all received the light, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
they contained many royal lodgings of every description; and there was one gallery which contained openings leading from the topmost surface and machines for supplying the gardens with water, the machines raising the water in great abundance from the river, although no one outside could see it being done. Now this park, as I have said, was a later construction.[10] TOSHIBA NSK-TAJ01 Laptop Keyboard
Quintus Curtius Rufus (active 1st century AD) referred to the writings of Cleitarchus, a 4th-century BC historian of Alexander the Great, when writing his ownHistory of Alexander the Great: ACER Aspire 5051AWXMi Laptop Keyboard
The Babylonians also have a citadel twenty stades in circumference. The foundations of its turrets are sunk thirty feet into the ground and the fortifications rise eighty feet above it at the highest point. On its summit are the hanging gardens, HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
a wonder celebrated by the fables of the Greeks. They are as high as the top of the walls and owe their charm to the shade of many tall trees. The columns supporting the whole edifice are built of rock, and on top of them is a flat surface of squared stones strong enough to bear the deep layer of earth placed upon it and the water used for irrigating it. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
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So stout are the trees the structure supports that their trunks are eight cubits thick and their height as much as fifty feet; they bear fruit as abundantly as if they were growing in their natural environment. And although time with its gradual decaying processes is as destructive to nature's works as to man's, even so this edifice survives undamaged, HP PK13ZK31000 Laptop Keyboard
despite being subjected to the pressure of so many tree-roots and the strain of bearing the weight of such a huge forest. It has a substructure of walls twenty feet thick at eleven foot intervals, so that from a distance one has the impression of woods overhanging their native mountains. Tradition has it that it is the work of a Syrian king who ruled from Babylon. ACER ZU2 Laptop Keyboard
He built it out of love for his wife who missed the woods and forests in this flat country and persuaded her husband to imitate nature's beauty with a structure of this kind.[11]
Strabo (ca. 64 BC – 21 AD) described of the Hanging Gardens as follows, in a passage that was thought to be based on the lost account of Onesicritus from the 4th century BC: Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Babylon, too, lies in a plain; and the circuit of its wall is three hundred and eighty-five stadia. The thickness of its wall is thirty-two feet; the height thereof between the towers is fifty cubits; that of the towers is sixty cubits; HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
and the passage on top of the wall is such that four-horsechariots can easily pass one another; and it is on this account that this and the hanging garden are called one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The garden is quadrangular in shape, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
and each side is four plethra in length. It consists of arched vaults, which are situated, one after another, on checkered, cube-like foundations. The checkered foundations, which are hollowed out, are covered so deep with earth that they admit of the largest of trees, DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard
having been constructed of baked brick and asphalt – the foundations themselves and the vaults and the arches. The ascent to the uppermostterrace-roofs is made by a stairway; HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
and alongside these stairs there were screws, through which the water was continually conducted up into the garden from the Euphrates by those appointed for this purpose, for the river, a stadium in width, flows through the middle of the city; and the garden is on the bank of the river."[12] ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
Philo of Byzantium, "the Paradoxographer" (writing in the 4th-5th century AD), whose list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World we use today,[13] was credited with the following description: HP G72-110SA Laptop Keyboard
The so-called Hanging Gardens have plants above ground, and are cultivated in the air, with the roots of the trees above the (normal) tilled earth, forming a roof. Four stone columns are set beneath, so that the entire space through the carved pillars is beneath the (artificial) ground. Palm trees lie in place on top of the pillars, alongside each other as (cross-)beams, TOSHIBA NSK-TN0SV Laptop Keyboard
leaving very little space in between. This timber does not rot, unlike others; when it is soaked and put under pressure it swells up and nourishes the growth from roots, since it incorporates into its own interstices what is planted with it from outside. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
Much deep soil is piled on, and then broad-leaved and especially garden trees of many varieties are planted, and all kind of flowering plants, everything, in short, that is most joyous and pleasurable to the onlooker. The place is cultivated as if it were (normal) tilled earth, HP Mini 210-1135LA Laptop Keyboard
nd the growth of new shoots has to be pruned almost as much as on normal land. This (artificial) arable land is above the heads of those who stroll along through the pillars. When the uppermost surface is walked on, the earth on the roofing stays firm and undisturbed just like a (normal) place with deep soil. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
Aqueducts contain water running from higher places; partly they allow the flow to run straight downhill, and partly they force it up, running backwards, by means of a screw; through mechanical pressure they force it round and round the spirals of the machines. Being discharged into close-packed, HP AELX9U00110 Laptop Keyboard
large cisterns, altogether they irrigate the whole garden, inebriating the roots of the plants to their depths, and maintaining the wet arable land, so that it is just like an evergreen meadow, and the leaves of the trees, on the tender new growth, feed upon dew and have a wind-swept appearance. For the roots, suffering no thirst, sprout anew, HP Mini 1001TU Laptop Keyboard
benefitting from the moisture of the water that runs past, flowing at random, interweaving along the lower ground to the collecting point, and reliably protects the growing of trees that have become established. Exuberant and fit for a king is the ingenuity, and most of all, forced, because the cultivator's hard work is hanging over the heads of the spectators.[14] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard
There is some controversy as to whether the Hanging Gardens were an actual construction or a poetic creation, owing to the lack of documentation in contemporaneous Babylonian sources. There is also no mention of Nebuchadnezzar's wife Amyitis (or any other wives), SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
although a political marriage to a Median or Persian would not have been unusual.[15] Herodotus, writing about Babylon closest in time to Nebuchadnezzar II, does not mention the Hanging Gardens in his Histories. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens.[7] It is possible that evidence exists beneath the Euphrates, which cannot be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its current position during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
and little is known about the western portion of Babylon.[16] Rollinger has suggested that Berossus attributed the Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar for political reasons, and that he had adopted the legend from elsewhere.[17] Toshiba Satellite L675D-S7047 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A recent theory proposes that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually constructed by the Assyrianking Sennacherib (reigned 704 – 681 BC) for his palace at Nineveh. Stephanie Dalley posits that during the intervening centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive gardens at Sennacherib's palace were attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II's Babylon.[18] HP Pavilion dv7-4170ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Recently discovered evidence includes excavation of a vast system of aqueducts inscribed to Sennacherib, which Dalley proposes were part of a 50-mile (80 km) series of canals, dams, aqueducts, used to carry water to Nineveh with water-raising screws used to raise it to the upper levels of the gardens.[19] HP Pavilion dv4-1506tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Dalley bases her arguments on recent developments in the decipherment of contemporary Akkadian inscriptions. Her main points are:[20]
King Sennacherib's Hanging Garden was considered a World Wonder not just for its beauty – a year-round oasis of lush green in a dusty summer landscape – but also for the marvellous feats of water engineering that maintained the garden.[30] Compaq Presario CQ61-411WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
There was a tradition of Assyrian royal garden building. King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) describes what he had done:
"I dug out a canal from the (river) Upper Zab, cutting through a mountain peak, and called it the Abundance Canal. I watered the meadows of the Tigris and planted orchards with all kinds of fruit trees in the vicinity. IBM FRU 46L4753 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I planted seeds and plants that I had found in the countries through which I had marched and in the highlands which I had crossed: pines of different kinds, cypresses and junipers of different kinds, almonds, dates, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, HP Pavilion dv6-3190sf Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
tamarisk, walnut, terebinth and ash, fir, pomegranate, pear, quince, fig, grapevine.... The canal water gushes from above into the garden; fragrance pervades the walkways, streams of water as numerous as the stars of heaven flow in the pleasure garden.... Like a squirrel I pick fruit in the garden of delights..." SONY Vaio VGN-FZ21E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Sennacherib is the only Mesopotamian king who has left a record of his love for his wife – a key part of the romantic classical story:
"And for Tashmetu-sharrat the palace woman, my beloved wife, whose features the Mistress of the Gods has made perfect above all other women, I had a palace of loveliness, delight and joy built..." HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Sennacherib's palace was comparable in size to Windsor Castle in England. He specifically mentions the massive limestone blocks that reinforce the flood defences. Parts of the palace were excavated by Austin Henry Layard in the mid-19th century. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
His citadel plan shows contours which would be consistent with Sennacherib's garden, but its position has not been confirmed. Unfortunately the area has been used as a military base in recent times, making it difficult to investigate further. DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard
A sculptured wall panel of Assurbanipal shows the garden in its maturity. There is one original panel[31] and the drawing of another[32] in the British Museum, although neither is on public display. Several features mentioned by the classical authors are discernible on these contemporary images. ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
The irrigation of such a garden demanded an upgraded water supply to the city of Nineveh. The canals stretched over 50 km into the mountains. Sennacherib was proud of the technologies he had employed, and describes them in some detail on his inscriptions. For example: HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
At the headwater of Bavian (Khinnis)[33] his inscription mentions automatic sluice gates but does not say how they worked:
"The sluice gate of that canal opens without a spade or a shovel and lets the waters of abundance flow.: its sluice gate is not opened by the labour of men's hands, but by the will of the gods." TOSHIBA Qosmio F20 Series Laptop Keyboard
An enormous aqueduct crossing the valley at Jerwan was constructed of over 2 million dressed stones. It used stone arches and waterproof cement.[34] On it is written:
"Sennacherib king of the world king of Assyria. Over a great distance I had a watercourse directed to the environs of Nineveh, joining together the waters.... Over steep-sided valleys I spanned an aqueduct of white limestone blocks, I made those waters flow over it." HP Pavilion dv3-2310ea Laptop Keyboard
He claims to be the first to deploy a new casting technique in place of the "lost-wax" process for his monumental (30 tonne) bronze castings, and describes the making of his water screws: DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
"Whereas in former times the kings my forefathers had created bronze statues imitating real-life forms to put on display inside temples, but in their method of work they had exhausted all the craftsmen, for lack of skill and failure to understand the principles they needed so much oil, HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
wax and tallow for the work that they caused a shortage in their own countries – I Sennacherib, leader of all princes, knowledgeable in all kinds of work, took much advice and deep thought over doing that kind of work.... I created clay moulds as if by divine intelligence for cylinders and screws... In order to draw up water all day long, SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
I had ropes, bronze wires and bronze chains made. And instead of a shaduf I set up the cylinders and screws of copper over cisterns....I raised the height of the surroundings of the palace, to be a Wonder for all Peoples... HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
A high garden imitating the Amanus mountains I laid out next to it, with all kinds of aromatic plants, orchard fruit trees, trees that enrich not only mountain country but also Chaldea (Babylonia), as well as trees that bear wool, planted within it"TOSHIBA Satellite L775-S7130 laptop keyboard
Sennacherib could bring the water into his garden at a high level because it was sourced from further up the mountains. He then raised the water even higher by deploying his new water screws. SONY Vaio PCG-K415B laptop keyboard
This meant he could build a garden that towered into the sky with large trees on the top of the terraces – a stunning artistic effect that surpassed those of his predecessors and which justifies his own claim to have built a "Wonder for all Peoples".TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5359 laptop keyboard
Epigraphy (from the Greek: ἐπιγραφή epi-graphē, literally "on-writing", "inscription"[1]) is the study ofinscriptions or epigraphs as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers. HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a documentand the artistic value of a literary composition.
A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist. Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
For example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and finding any relevant circumstances. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
It is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practiced by the same person. Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
An epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme (such as marks on a pot that abbreviate the name of the merchant who shipped commodities in the pot) to a lengthy document (such as a treatise, IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
a work of literature, or a hagiographic prescription). Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as NUMISMATICS or PALAEOGRAPHY. When compared to books, most inscriptions are short. The media and the forms of the graphemes are diverse: TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8906 laptop keyboard
engravings in stone or metal, scratches on rock, impressions in wax, embossing on cast metal, cameo or intaglio on precious stones, painting on ceramic or in fresco. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, such as the baking of a clay tablet in a conflagration. Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
Epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the auxiliary sciences of history. Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery: epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary. Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
The study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, PALAEOGRAPHY.
The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a matter quite separate from the nature of the text, which is studied in itself. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are essentially different from the written texts of each culture. Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
Not all inscribed texts are public, however: inMycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of "Linear B" were revealed to be largely used for economic and administrative record keeping. Informal inscribed texts are "graffiti" in its original sense. ACER KB.T3007.001 laptop keyboard
History
The science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first. Individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius (1516–1571); August Wilhelm Zumpt (1815–1877); DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903); Emil Hübner (1834–1901); Franz Cumont (1868–1947); Louis Robert (1904–1985).
The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has been published in Berlin since 1863, with wartime interruptions. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S9513BN laptop keyboard
It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions. New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically: all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6. This volume has the greatest number of inscriptions; volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published (2000). SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, not unlike the biologists' Zoological Record— the raw material of history. HP Pavilion dv6-3131tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. There are two. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin, 1825-1877. This marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world. HP 622029-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Only advanced students still consult it, for better editions of the texts have superseded it. The second, modern corpus is Inscriptiones Graecae arranged geographically under categories: decrees, catalogues, honorary titles, funeral inscriptions, various., all presented in Latin, to preserve the international neutrality of the field of classics. SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
Other such series include the Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum (Etruscan inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Crucesignatorum Terrae Sanctae (Crusaders' inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum, (Celtic inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum (Iranian inscriptions) and so forth. SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
Egyptian hieroglyphs were solved using the Rosetta Stone, which was a multilingual stele in Classical Greek, Demotic Egyptian and Classical Egyptian hieroglyphs. The work was done by the French scholar, Jean-François Champollion, and the British scientist Thomas Young. DELL NSK-D8C01 laptop keyboard
The interpretation of Maya hieroglyphs was lost as a result of the Spanish Conquest of Central America. However, recent work by Maya epigraphers and linguists has yielded a considerable amount of information on this complex writing system.[2] Acer eMachines G730Z laptop keyboard
Inscriptions were commonly incised on stone or marble, on metal, or on wood (though this last material has hardly ever survived, except in Egypt), or on terracotta. In Egypt and Mesopotamia hard stones were frequently used for the purpose, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
and the inscriptions are therefore well preserved and easy to read. In Greece the favourite material, especially in Athens, was white marble, which takes an admirably clear lettering, but is liable to weathering of the surface if exposed, SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
and to wear if rebuilt into pavements or similar structures. Many other kinds of stone, both hard and soft, were often used, especially crystalline limestones, which do not easily take a smooth surface, and which, therefore, are often difficult to decipher, owing to accidental marks or roughness of the material. [3] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
The metal most commonly used for inscriptions was bronze: flat tablets of this were often made for affixing to the walls of temples and other buildings. Occasionally such tablets were made of silver or gold; and inscriptions were often incised on vessels made of any of these metals. Inscriptions on metal were nearly always incised, not cast. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
An important class of inscriptions are the legends on coins; these were struck from the die. (cf. NUMISMATICS.) Clay was very extensively used for inscriptions in Mesopotamia and in Crete. In this case the symbols were incised or impressed on specially prepared tablets when the clay was soft, and it was subsequently hardened by fire. Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard
In Greece, many inscriptions on vases were painted before firing, in that case often having reference to the scenes represented, or incised after firing; potsherds (ostraka) were often used as a cheap writing material. Inscriptions were also often impressed from a mould upon wet clay before firing, in the case of tiles, Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
amphora handles, etc., and in these cases often supply valuable information as to the buildings to which they belong or the place from which they took their origin.[3]
The tools used for making inscriptions varied with the material; SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard
most of them were some kind of chisel, usually with a square blade; early inscriptions were sometimes made on hard rock by successive blows with a punch or pointed hammer. Sometimes a circular punch was used for O or a letter of which O formed a part. TOSHIBA Satellite M35X-S161 laptop keyboard
Styles of Cutting
Early inscriptions, which are often amateur work, are frequently very irregular in their cutting. But in almost all examples of later work, the inscriptions are evidently cut by professionals, and there are definite styles and methods belonging to various places and periods. In Egypt, for instance, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
the HIEROGLYPHS are carefully and delicately cut in early times, and in later periods become more careless and conventional. In Greece, the best work was done in the 5th and 4th centuries BC in Athens; the letters were all exact and regular in shape, HP Pavilion dv5-1095eo laptop keyboard
with no adventitious ornaments, and were, especially in the 5th century, usually exactly aligned with the letters above and below, as well as those on each side. At that time all the strokes were made of equal thickness, but in the 4th century BC and later there came in the custom of holding the chisel obliquely to the surface, SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
thus producing a wedge-shaped stroke. A similar custom in Mesopotamia gave rise to the so-called CUNEIFORM system. On metal inscriptions in Greece this same effect appears earlier than stone or marble. IBM 42T4026 laptop keyboard
In the 3rd century and later it becomes common to introduce apices or ornamental ends to the strokes, a custom which prevails to the present day in our ordinary capital letters. The custom of making different strokes and different parts of curves of varying thickness became common in Roman inscriptions, which developed a monumental style of their own, HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
varying from period to period. Inscriptions can often be approximately dated by the style of the cutting as well as by the shapes of the letters; skill in doing this can only be acquired by a careful and minute study of originals and facsimiles. HP 6730S laptop keyboard
(cf. DATING METHODOLOGIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY.)
Inscriptions vary greatly in size according to the position where they were intended to be read, their purpose, and the skill of the cutter. Some inscriptions are of great length, the longest, a statement of accounts of the temple at Delos, under Athenian administration, being nearly half as long as a book ofThucydides; and many other inscriptions approach this in length.[3] Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Symbols and Forms of Writing
The ORIGIN OF WRITING and the evolution fo the ALPHABET are discussed elsewhere in the specific Wikipedia articles upon those subjects. For the present purpose it is sufficient to note that most of the forms of writing known to us originated in some system of picture-writing (cf. also PICTOGRAPHY, which developed into a hieroglyphic system. HP Pavilion dv6-2016ax Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Such systems appear to have originated independently in different parts of the world — in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, among the Hittites and inChina and America. The evidence for all of these is mainly to be found in inscriptions. SONY Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The development from Ideographs(or direct representation of an object or idea) to symbols of phonetic value, and so to syllabaries or alphabets, took place in many different systems to various degrees. HP Pavilion dv7-6b55dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
But the first people to invent a completely alphabetic system of writing were the Phoenicians, from whom the Greeks borrowed it with certain modifications and improvements. From the Greeks was derived the Latin, and from the two all the alphabets of European peoples. It is still a matter of dispute whether the Phoenician was derived from the Egyptian. APPLE MacBook Pro 15 inch MA610LL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The hieroglyphic symbols naturally tended to be conventionalised and simplified for convenience of cutting, in accordance with the materials and tools employed. In many cases they developed from a pictorial to a linear form. It is possible that some of these linear forms may not be derived from hieroglyphs, but from purely conventional geometrical forms. HP G71-340US Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
such as widely used at all periods and places as owners' or masons' marks. The tendency of linear forms to become wedge-shaped is most conspicuous in cuneiform, but as has been noticed, the same tendency occurs in Greek inscriptions incised on bronze. HP Pavilion dv7-6166nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In the north of Europe the OGHAM inscriptions are alphabetic, and are apparently an independent invention on arbitrary lines, like the Morse code; but Runes, which were extensively used in the same region, are derived from the Greek or the Latin alphabets. HP Pavilion dv6-3050et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In most alphabetic systems there are also found in inscriptions certain symbols which are not strictly alphabetic or phonetic in character. The commonest of these are the various systems of numerals that are used in different times and places. It is impossible here to give any full description of these different systems; Dell Vostro 3500 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
but a brief account may be given of the principles underlying them. Most of them are based upon a decimal system, doubtless owing to the habit of counting on the fingers. In some cases the symbols are simple and obvious, as in the Cretan script, HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
where circles (or rhombi), dots and lines are used for hundreds, tens and units, each being repeated as often as necessary; and a similar system for the lower denominations is used at Epidaurus in the 4th century BC. In Athens the usual system was to indicate each denomination by its initial, M for Μύριοι (10,000), X for χίλιοι (1,000), HP Pavilion dv5-2135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
H for εκατόν (100), Δ for δέκα (10), π for πεντε (5) and I for units. The other Greek system followed that derived from the Phoenicians, using the letters of the alphabet in their conventional order from one to nine, 10 to 90 and 100 to 900; in this arrangement obsolete letters were retained in their original places so as to give the requisite number of 27 symbols. HP Pavilion dv7t-6100 CTO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Roman system of numerals — M, D, C, L, X, V, I (for 1,000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 5 and 1) is generally supposed to have arisen from the adaptation of those symbols in the Greek alphabet which the Romans did not want; an alternative theory is that it is simplified from a series of ideographsrepresenting the spread hand, the fingers and so on.[3] Compaq Presario CQ61-435SA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Apart from numerals, the use of initials in the place of complete words was not common in early times. It became, however, very frequent in Roman inscriptions, which sometimes are made up almost entirely of such abbreviations and can only be understood by those familiar with the formulae. ASUS M51SE Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A list of the commonest of these will be found under LIST OF CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS.Compendia or monograms also occur in later Greek and Roman times, and become very common and very difficult to interpret in early Christian and Byzantine inscriptions.
Some kind of punctuation is often found in inscriptions of all kinds. HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
In Greek inscriptions a vertical line or a dot, or dots, sometimes indicates the separation between sentences or words, but words are seldom separated by spaces as in modern printing, so that the text is continuous and no division of words exists.This is particularly the case with Greek inscriptions of the best period. HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
In Roman inscriptions it was usual to separate the words by dots. In certain inscriptions a cross ( ) was used to indicate the beginning of an inscription, especially when its direction was erratic. Christian inscriptions sometimes begin with a cross, which doubtless had a symbolic meaning; and a leaf or other device was often placed at the end.
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The letters or symbols may be arranged vertically below one another, and read from top to bottom, or horizontally, either from right to left or from left to right; they may also be arranged in a kind of pattern — in which case their order may be indeterminate, HP G71-343US laptop keyboard
or in a wandering or curved line, or left to right and right to left alternately (boustrophedon, or as an ox in ploughing). Most Semitic alphabets, including Phoenician, read from right to left; and the earliest Greek inscriptions follow the same direction. But the direction from left to right became regular in Greece after the 6th century BC, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard
and consequently is adopted by the Romans and in all European systems. The individual letters or symbols usually face in the same direction as the writing, as a whole.[3]
The position or place of inscriptions depends greatly upon their purpose or intention. When they have a direct relation to the sculptures, reliefs or paintings with which they are associated, TOSHIBA Satellite l20-101 Laptop Keyboard
they often form a kind of pattern to fill the background or vacant spaces between the figures; but sometimes, especially in Mesopotamian statues or reliefs, they are cut right across the figures without any regard to the artistic effect. HP COMPAQ NX6310 Laptop Keyboard
In late Greek or Roman work it is usual to cut any inscription relative to a statue or relief upon the basis on which this is mounted; but short inscriptions such as dedications or artists' signatures are often placed in some inconspicuous position upon the work itself. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
In the case of painted vases, the inscriptions relative to the subject represented are usually painted; but dedications and other inscriptions are often incised after the vase has been fired.
In Egypt, inscriptions were often inscribed or painted upon inner walls of tombs, whether they referred to religious belief or ritual, or to the honours and possessions of the deceased; Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
they were intended for his benefit and convenience rather than for the information of others, so as to perpetuate his familiar surroundings, not to make him live in the memory of his successors. The information which we derive from such inscriptions is invaluable to us; but such was not the intention with which they were made. HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard
On the other hand, inscriptions which were intended to be seen by the public and to perpetuate a record of events, or to supply useful information, were usually placed in places of common resort, above all in temples and sacred precincts. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
Sometimes they were cut on convenient rock faces, sometimes upon the walls of temples or other buildings. Most frequently the slabs of marble (stelae), stone metal or other material upon which the inscriptions were incised were set up in convenient positions to be read, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
in any places of public resort. This was the method of publication of all laws, decrees and official notices, of treaties and contracts, of honours to officials or private citizens, of religious dedications and prescriptions of ritual. Inscribed tombstones were set up over graves, which were usually placed along the chief roads leading out of a town, HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard
the most familiar example being the sacred way from Athens to Eleusis. Inscriptions commemorative of victories or other great events were only in exceptional cases erected upon the spot; more often such memorials were set up in some great religious centre such as Delphi or Olympia. But boundary stones were necessarily placed on the line which they defined.[3] HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
The study of inscriptions supplies an important contribution to the history of many lands and peoples. In some cases, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, it forms almost the only source of information in the absence of literary records; in others, as in Greece and Rome, it offers a most valuable supplement and comment to what is otherwise recorded. TOSHIBA K000097460 Laptop Keyboard
Both Egyptian and Mesopotamian inscriptions go back to an extremely early date; it is at present uncertain which is the earlier, but both show, before 3500 BC and possibly much earlier, a complete, organised system of writing which implies many centuries of development behind it. The Egyptian hieroglyphic system, as used in inscriptions, HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
continued without any essential change of character until Roman times, though various systems of hieratic modification were used at different times. On the famous Rosetta Stone, in the British Museum, which first gave the clue to the interpretation of Egyptian writing, hieroglyphic, SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard
hieratic and Greek versions of the same decree are given side by side. Its date is 195 BC. The Mesopotamian linear symbols developed mainly for technical reasons, into a wedge-shaped or cuneiform system, which was adopted in modified forms and applied to different languages through some thousands of years, Sumerian, Babylonian, Dell Latitude E6500 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Assyrianand Persian, until it was superseded, after the conquests of Alexander, by Greek. An independent hieroglyphic system, which also developed into various linear scripts, existed in Crete during the Middle and Late Minoan periods, from about 3000, probably, SONY Vaio VGN-NR120Q Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
to the fall of Knossos, about 1500 BC. The Hittite hieroglyphs correspond to the period of the Hittite empire inNorthern Syria and Asia Minor from about 2000 to 800 BC; from it, according to one theory, arose the Cypriot syllabary, which continued in use until the 4th century BC or later.[3] Toshiba Satellite A205-S5879 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The earliest Phoenician inscriptions known date from about the 10th century BC, and the alphabet remained in use down to the 3rd century BC. It was modified and adopted by the Greeks at an uncertain date; the earliest Greek inscriptions are generally dated in the 7th century BC. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan