These inscriptions are of special interest as throwing much light upon the history of art. The artist's name was usually, especially in earlier times, carved upon the base of the pedestal of a statue, DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
and consequently was easily separated from it if the statue was carried off or destroyed. A case where both statue and pedestal are preserved is offered by the Victory, signed on its pedestal by Paeonius at Olympia. Occasionally, and more frequently in later times, HP G61-409CA Laptop Keyboard
the artist's signature was carved upon some portion of the statue itself. But in later copies of well-kown works, it has to be considered whether the name is that of the original artist or of the copyist who reproduced his work. (see for example, the "statue of Hercules/Heracles" below) DELL Vostro 3500 Laptop Keyboard
A special class of artists' signatures is offered by the names signed by Attic and other vase painters upon their vases. SONY VGN-FE790 Laptop Keyboard
These have been made the basis of a minute historical and stylistic study of the work of these painters, and unsigned vases also have been grouped with the signed ones, so as to make an exact and detailed record of this branch of Greek artistic production.[15]
Historical Records ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
The great majority of these fall into one of the classes already referred to. But there are some instances in which an inscription is set up merely as a record. For instance, a victor in athletic or other contests may set up a list of his victories. HP Compaq NW8440 Laptop Keyboard
The most famous historical record is the autobiographical account of the deeds and administration of Augustus, which was reproduced and set up in many places; it is generally known as theMonumentum Ancyranum, HP Pavilion DV3000 Laptop Keyboard
because the most complete copy of it was found at Ancyra. The Marmor Parium at Oxford, found in Paros, is a chronological record of Greek history, probably made for educational purposes, and valuable as giving the traditional dates of events from the earliest time down.[16] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5227 Laptop Keyboard
Tombs and Epitaphs
This is by far the most numerous class of inscriptions, both Greek and Latin. In early times there is often no record beyond the name of the deceased in Athens, often with the name of his father and his deme. ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard
Sometimes a word or two of conventional praise is added, such as "a good and wise man". Occasionally the circumstances of death are alluded to, especially if it took place in battle or at sea. Such epitaphs were frequently in metrical form, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
usually either hexameteror elegiacs. Many of them have been collected, and they form an interesting addition to the Greek anthology. In later times it becomes usual to give more elaborate praise of the deceased; SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
but this is hardly ever so detailed and fulsome as on more modern tombstones. The age and other facts about the deceased are occasionally given, but not nearly so often as on Latin tombstones, which offer valuable statistical information in this respect.[17] LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 Laptop Keyboard
Latin inscriptions may be classified on much the same lines as Greek; but certain broad distinctions may be drawn at the outset. They are generally more standardised as to form and as to content, not only in Rome and ItalyDELL Vostro PP38L Laptop Keyboard
, but also throughout the provinces of the Roman Empire. One of the chief difficulties in deciphering Latin Inscriptions lies in the very extensive use of initials and abbreviations. These are of great number and variety, and while some of them can be easily interpreted as belonging to well-known formulae, others offer considerable difficulty, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
especially to the inexperienced student.[18] Often the same initial may have many different meanings according to the context. Some common formulae such as V.S.L.M. (votum solvit libens merito), or H.M.H.N.S. (hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur) HP MP-08K33US-930 Laptop Keyboard
offer little difficulty, but there are many which are not so obvious and leave room for conjecture. Often the only way to determine the meaning is to search through a list of initials, such as those given by modern Latin epigraphists, until a formula is found which fits the context. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Most of what has been said about Greek inscriptions applies to Roman also. The commonest materials in this case also are stone, marble and bronze; but a more extensive use is made of stamped bricks and tiles, which are often of historical value as identifying and dating a building or other construction. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R52 1870 Laptop Keyboard
The same applies to leaden water pipes which frequently bear dates and names of officials. Terracotta lamps also frequently have their makers' names and other information stamped upon them. Arms, and especially shields, LENOVO IdeaPad S10e 4068 laptop keyboard
sometimes bear the name and corps of their owners. Leaden discs were also used to serve the same purpose as modern identification discs. Inscriptions are also found on sling bullets — Roman as well as Greek; there are also numerous classes oftesserae or tickets of admission to theatres or other shows. FUJITSU Lifebook S7210 laptop keyboard
As regards the contents of inscriptions, there must evidently be a considerable difference between records of a number of independent city states and an empire including almost all the civilised world; but municipalities maintained much of their independent traditions in Roman times, and consequently their inscriptions often follow the old formulas. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM laptop keyboard
The classification of Roman inscriptions may, therefore, follow the same lines as the Greek, except that certain categories are absent, and that some others, not found in Greek, are of considerable importance. Compaq Presario CQ42-137TU laptop keyboard
A certain number of these dating from republican times are of considerable interest. One of the earliest relates to the prohibition of bacchanalian orgies in Italy; it takes the form of a message from the magistrates, stating the authority on which they acted. Laws all follow a fixed formula, according to the body which has passed them. HP Pavilion DV7-2277cl laptop keyboard
First there is a statement that the legislative body was consulted by the appropriate magistrate in due form; then follows the text of the law; and finally the sanction, the statement that the law was passed. In decrees of the senate the formula differs somewhat. They begin with a preamble giving the names of the consulting magistrates, HP G61-409CA laptop keyboard
the place and conditions of the meeting; then comes the subject submitted for decision, ending with the formulaQDERFP (quid de ea re fieri placeret); then comes the decision of the senate, opening with DERIC (de ea re ita censuerunt). C. is added at the end, LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
to indicate that the decree was passed. In imperial times, the emperor sometimes addressed a speech to the senate, advising them to pass certain resolutions, or else, especially in later times, gave orders or instructions directly, SONY Vaio VGN-AW310J laptop keyboard
either on his own initiative or in response to questions or references. The number and variety of such orders is such that no classification of them can be given here. One of the most famous is the edict of Diocletian, fixing the prices of all commodities. Copies of this in Greek as well as in Latin have been found in various parts of the Roman Empire.[20] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5227 laptop keyboard
Records of Buildings, etc.
A very large number of inscriptions record the construction or repair of public buildings by private individuals, by magistrates, Roman or provincial, and by emperors. In addition to the dedication of temples, we find inscriptions recording the construction of aqueducts, ACER Aspire 4315 laptop keyboard
roads, especially on milestones, baths,basilicas, porticos and many other works of public utility. In inscriptions of early period often nothing is given but the name of the person who built or restored the edifice and a statement that he had done so. But later it was usual to give more detail as to the motive of the building, ASUS F82Q laptop keyboard
the name of the emperor or a magistrate giving the date, the authority for the building and the names and distinctions of the builders; then follows a description of the building, the source of the expenditure (e.g., S.P., sua pecunia) and finally the appropriate verb for the work done, GATEWAY MX6956 laptop keyboard
whether building, restoring, enlarging or otherwise improving. Other details are sometimes added, such as the name of the man under whose direction the work was done.
These vary greatly in content, and are among the most important documents concerning the administration of the Roman Empire. "IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R52 laptop keyboard
They are numerous and of all sorts — tombstones of every degree, lists of soldiers' burial clubs, certificates of discharge from service, schedules of time-expired men, dedications of altars, records of building or of engineering works accomplished. COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
The facts directly commemorated are rarely important."[21] But when the information from hundreds of such inscriptions is collected together, "you can trace the whole policy of the Imperial Government in the matter of recruiting, ACER Aspire 4736Z laptop keyboard
to what extent and till what date legionaries were raised in Italy; what contingents for various branches of the service were drawn from the provinces, and which provinces provided most; how far provincials garrisoned their own countries, and which of them, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
like the British recruits, were sent as a measure of precaution to serve elsewhere; or, finally, at what epoch the empire grew weak enough to require the enlistment of barbarians from beyond its frontiers."[21] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Honorary inscriptions are extremely common in all parts of the Roman world. Sometimes they are placed on the bases of statues, sometimes in documents set up to record some particular benefaction or the construction of some public work. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
The offices held by the person commemorated, and the distinctions conferred upon him are enumerated in a regularly established order (cursus honorum), either beginning with the lower and proceeding step by step to the higher, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
or in reverse order with the highest first. Religious and priestly offices are usually mentioned before civil and political ones. These might be exercised either in Rome itself, or in the verious municipalities of the empire. TOSHIBA Satellite L40-14Y laptop keyboard
There was also a distinction drawn between offices that might be held only by persons of senatorial rank, those that were assigned to persons of equestrian rank, and those of a less distinguished kind. It follows that when only a portion of an inscription has been found, it is often possible to restore the whole in accordance with the accepted order.[3] HP Pavilion dv6-3030em laptop keyboard
Signatures of Artists
When these are attached to statues, it is sometimes doubtful whether the name is that of the man who actually made the statue, or of the master whose work it reproduces. Thus there are two well-known copies of a statue of Hercules by Lysippus, of which one is said to be the work of Lysippus, DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
and the other states that it was made by Glycon (see images). Another kind of artist's or artificer's signature that is commoner in Roman times is to be found in the signatures of potters upon lamps and various kinds of vessels; they are usually impressed on the mould and stand out in relief on the terracotta or other material. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
These are of interest as giving much information as to the commercial spread of various kinds of handicrafts, and also as to the conditions under which they were manufactured.
These are probably the most numerous of all classes of inscriptions; and though many of them are of no great individual interest, they convey, when taken collectively, Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard
much valuable information as to the distribution and transference of population, as to trades and professions, as to health and longevity, and as to many other conditions of ancient life. The most interesting early series is that on the tombs of the Scipios at Rome, recording, mostly in Saturnian Metre, the exploits and distinctions of the various members of that family.[22] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
About the end of the republic and the beginning of the empire, it became customary to head a tombstone with the letters D.M. or D.M.S. (Dis Manibus sacrum), thus consecrating the tomb to the deceased as having become members of the body of ghosts or spirits of the dead. These are followed by the anem of the deceased, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
usually with his father's name and his tribe, by his honours and distinctions, sometimes by a record of his age. The inscription often concludes with H.I. (Hic iacet), or some similar formula, and also, frequently, with a statement of boundaries and a prohibition of violation or further use — for instance, H.M.H.N.S.( SONY VAIO PCG-FR415S laptop keyboard
hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur, this monument is not to pass to the heir). The person who has erected the monument and his relation to the deceased are often stated; or if a man has prepared the tomb in his lifetime, this also may be stated, V.S.F. HP Pavilion dv6-3190sf laptop keyboard
(vivus sibi fecit). But it is obvious that there is an immense variety in the information that either a man himself or his friend may wish to record.[22]
Milestones and Boundaries HP 636191-001 laptop keyboard
Milestones (miliaria) have already been referred to, and may be regarded as records of the building of roads. Boundary stones (termini) are frequently found, both of public and private property. A well-known instance is offered by those set up by the commissioners called III. viri A.I.A. (agris iudicandis adsignandis) in the time of the Gracchi.[3] DELL Latitude D430 laptop keyboard
In conclusion, one may say that Latin inscriptions are the meeting point of Roman history and several arts. These are arts of expression or composition, writing in the strictly physical sense, and design or arrangement. The history is Roman history in its largest sense, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
involving men and women in many of their affairs, such as life and death, government, law, religious worship — all as illustrated above. The related fields one has to enter in order to fully appreciate the epigraphical study, are many: beside all aspects of Roman history, such more restricted but still large fields as ancient jewelry, ASUS X82S laptop keyboard
Etruscology, Italic and Latinphilology, ancient pottery, comparative palaeography, Roman nomenclature, Latin verse, lexicography (including inconsistencies of spelling, the early lack of a standard orthography0, Roman architecture and prosopography, and the pronunciation of Greek as revealed by the rendering of Greek words in Latin inscriptions and of Latin words in Greek.[23] HP Pavilion dv6-2160ep laptop keyboard
the Peiraeus which has been completely reconstructed on paper by architects from the building specification.[3][11] In the case of the Erechtheum, we have not only a detailed report on the unfinished state of the building in 409 BC, but also accounts of the expenditure and payments to the workmen employed in finishing it. HP G62-450SV laptop keyboard
Similar accounts have been preserved of the building of theParthenon, spread over 15 years; in the case of both the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, there are included the payments made to those who made the sculptures.[7][12] HP Mini 110-1014NR laptop keyboard
Naval and military expenditure is also fully accounted for; among other information there are records of the galley-slips at the different harbours of the Piraeus, and of the ships of the Athenian navy, with their names and condition. ASUS X82S laptop keyboard
In short, there is no department of state economy and financial administration that is not abundantly illustrated by the record of inscriptions.[11] A set of records of high historical value are the "tribute lists", recording the quota paid to Athens by her subject allies during the 5th century BC. These throw much light on her relations with them at verious periods.(Cf. DELIAN LEAGUE).
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There are not only records of lists of ephebi and of their guardians and instructors, but also decrees in honour of their services, especially in taking their due part in religious and other ceremonies, HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
and resolutions of the ephebi themselves in honour of their officials. It is possible to trace in the inscriptions, which range over several centuries, how what was originally a system of physical and military training for Athenian youths from age of 18 to 20, HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
with outpost and police duties, was gradually transformed. In later times there were added to the instructors in military exercises others who gave lectures on what we should now call arts and science subjects; so that in the Hellenistic and Roman times, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
when youths from all parts of the civilised world flocked to Athens as an intellectual centre, the ephebic system became a kind of cosmopolitan university.[13]
Treaties and political and Commercial Agreements; Arbitration, etc. TOSHIBA NSK-TAJ01 Laptop Keyboard
In addition to inscriptions which are concerned with the internal affairs of various cities, there are many others recording treaties or other agreements of an international character between various cities and states. ACER Aspire 5051AWXMi Laptop Keyboard
These were incised on bronze or stone, and set up in places of public resort in the cities concerned, or in common religious centres such as Olympia and Delphi. The simplest form of treaty is merely an alliance for a certain term of years, usually with some penalty for any breach of the conditions. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
Often an oath was prescribed, to be taken by representatives on each side; it was also not unusual to appeal to the god in whose temple the treaty was exhibited. In other cases a list of gods by whom the two parties must swear is prescribed. Commercial clauses were sometimes added to treaties of alliance, and commercial treaties are also found, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
agreeing as to the export and import of merchandise and other things. In later days, especially in the time of the Hellenistic kings, treaties tend to become more complicated and detailed in their provisions.[9] ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Another series of records of great historical interest is concerned with arbitration between various states on various questions, mainly concerned with frontiers. In cases of dispute it was not uncommon for the two disputants to appoint a third party as arbitrator. Sometimes this third party was another State, sometimes a specified number of individuals. HP PK13ZK31000 Laptop Keyboard
Thus, in a frontier dispute between Corinth and Epidaurus, 151 citizens of Megara were appointed by name to arbitrate, and when the decision was disputed, 31 from among them revised and confirmed it. In all such cases it was the custom for a full record to be preserved on stone and set up in the places concerned. ACER ZU2 Laptop Keyboard
In this case the initiative in referring the matter to arbitration came from the Achaean League.[3]
Proxenia Decrees
A very large class of inscriptions deals with the institution of proxenia. According to this a citizen of any State might be appointed proxenos of another State; his duties would then be to offer help and hospitality to any citizen of that other State who might be visiting his city, and to assist him in any dispute or in securing his legal rights. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
The office has been compared to the modern appointment of consuls, with the essential difference that the proxenos is always a citizen of the state in which he resides, not of that whose citizens and interests he assists. HP Pavilion dv6-2040ev laptop keyboard
The decrees upon this matter frequently record the appointment of a proxenos, and the conferring on him of certain benefits and privileges in return for his services; they also contain resolutions of thanks from the city served by the proxenos, and record honours consequently conferred upon him.[14] SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard
Honours and Privileges Given to Individuals
This class of inscription is in form not unlike the last, except that honours recorded are given for all sorts of services, private and public, to the State and to individuals. A frequent addition is an invitation to dine in the Prytaneum at Athens. Some are inscribed on the bases of statues set up to the recipient. In early times these inscriptions are usually brief and simple. TOSHIBA Satellite L775-S7245 laptop keyboard
The bust of Pericles on the Acropolis held nothing but the names of Pericles himself and of the sculptor Kresilas. Later it became usual to give, in some Another elements in Greek religion which is known to us almost exclusively by means of inscriptions, is to be found in the religious associations that existed in many Greek cities, apart from the organisation of state religion, though sometimes recognised by it. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
These associations had each its own regulations, which were duly recorded in inscriptions; they varied greatly both in purpose and in character. Many of them had a definitely religious purpose, in the worship of certain gods; sometimes an alien community was given special permission to worship its own god or gods in its own way. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5107 laptop keyboard
Other associations were more social in character and served as clubs, or as burial societies. A remarkable feature about such associations is that the lists of members of many of them include the names of women and of slaves, thus contrasting with the civic basis of established religion in Greece, and anticipating a religion in which Toshiba Satellite A50-111 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"there can be neither Jew nor Greek, there can be neither bond nor free, there can be no male and female." (Galatians 3:28). Ancient writers state that the earliest laws of Athens were inscribed upon tablets of wood, Toshiba Satellite A205-S5804 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
put together in a pyramidal shape. These, owing to their material, have perished; but we have some very early codes of law preserved on stone, notably atGortyna in Crete. Here an inscription of great length is incised on the slabs of a theatre-shaped structure in 12 columns of 50 lines each; it is mainly concerned with the law of inheritance, adoption, HP Pavilion dv8229ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
etc. Doubtless similar inscriptions were set up in many places in Greece. An interesting series of inscriptions deals with the conditions under which colonists were sent out from various cities, and the measures that were taken to secure their rights as citizens. DELL Studio 1450 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A bronze tablet records in some detail the arrangements of this sort made when Locrians established a colony in Naupactus; another inscription relates to the Athenian colonisation of Salamis, in the 6th century BC. DELL Studio 1458 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Decrees of People and Rulers, later of Kings and Emperors
A very large number of inscriptions are in the form of decrees of various cities and peoples, even when their subject matter suggests that they should be classified under other headings. Almost all legislative and many administrative measures take this form; often a decree prescribes how and where the inscription should be set up. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad W500 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The formulae and preambles of such decrees vary considerably from place to place, and from period to period. Those of Athens are by far the most exactly known, owing to the immense number that have been discovered; and they are so strictly stereotyped that can be classified with the precision of algebraical formulae, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and often dated to within a few years by this test alone. Very full lists for this purpose have been drawn up by epigraphist Wilhelm Larfeld, in his work on the subject.[10] It is usual to record the year (by the name of the eponymous archon), the day of the month and of the prytany (or presiding commission according to tribes), HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
various secretaries, the presiding officials and the proposer of the decree. It is also stated whether the resolution is passed by the senate (Boule) or the assembly of the people (Ecclesia), or both. The circumstances or the reason of the resolution are then given, and finally the decision itself. Some other cities followed Athens in the form of their decrees, HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard
with such local variations as were required; others were more independent in their development, and different magistracies or forms of government had various results. In the Hellenistic Age, and later, the forms of independent government were, to a great extent, kept up, though little real power remained with the people. SONY V072078AS1 Laptop Keyboard
On the other hand it is common thing to find letters from kings, and later from Roman emperors, inscribed and set up in public places.[3]
Public Accounts, Treasure Lists, Building Inscriptions HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
It was customary to inscribe on stone all records of the receipt, custody and expenditure of public money or treasure, so that citizens could verify for themselves the safety and due control of the State in all financial matters. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard
As in the case of temple accounts, it was usual for each temporary board of officials to render to their successors an account of their stewardship, and of the resources and treasures which they handed over. In all cases of public works, the expenditure was ordered by the State, SONY Vaio PCG-K86P Laptop Keyboard
and detailed reports were drawn up and inscribed on stone at intervals while the work was being carried out. In many cases there is a detailed specification of building work which makes it possible, not only to realise all the technical details and processes employed, When there is any doubt about any ritual or procedure, HP Pavilion dm1-1010sa Laptop Keyboard
divination is often resorted to, and the results of such divination are recorded in inscriptions as a guidance for the future; it was also a common practice to consult Delphi or some otheroracle in doubtful or difficult cases; SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
there the exact method of procedure is sometimes recorded, as well as the response of the oracle. Forms of worship are often prescribed or recorded, especially hymns, which are sometimes inscribed together with their musical notation. The performance of songs or hymns and dances are also matters of constant reference, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
especially in connection with lyrical or musical contests; the victorious band or performer often dedicated the prize in honour of the god. A special form of contest was that in dramatic performances, of which many records have survived, ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
both from Athens and from many other parts of the Greek world. The regulation of athletic festivals, and the records of victors in their contests, also form a numerous class of inscriptions. As regards mysteries, ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard
though there are numerous regulations affecting the arrangement of celebrations and the conduct of those participating, there is, as was to be expected, very little concerning the actual performances. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
Another interesting phase of Greek religion known to us mainly from inscriptions is offered by the shrines of healing. The most notable of these is the precinct of Asclepius at Epidaurus. Here have been found, on large slabs of inscription, compiled, in all probability, from earlier documents, lists of the cures effected by Apollo and Asclepius. SONY Vaio VPC-EB42FM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The cures are of the most varied kinds, from painful diseases or surgical cases to a lost boy and a broken cup. The formula is in almost all cases the same: the consultant come to Epidaurus, sleeps in the abaton, has dreams or sees visions, and comes out whole. In later times, when such faith-healing had probably become less efficacious, elaborate prescriptions of diet and hygiene are recorded.[7] HP Mini 110-3120ss Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A special form of prayer consists of curses, which were often buried in the ground, probably with the intent to reach the infernal gods. Such curses often give the reason for their being made, usually some injury done to the author of the curse; sometimes they devote the offender to the infernal gods.[3] HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
but also the whole plan and structure of a building. A notable instance is the arsenal of Philon at
detail, the reasons for the honours awarded; and in Hellenistic and Roman times, these became more and more detailed and fulsome in laudatory detail. Toshiba AB7005HX-SB3 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Signatures of Artists
If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Thus, much scientifically based speculation might convince one (or many) that the hypothesis that other intelligent species exist is true. But since there no experiment now known which can test this hypothesis, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In future, some new technique might lead to an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science. HP 3MLX8TATP20 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed, when compared to a crucial experiment. HP Pavilion dv2820es Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to further testing. Theexperimental control is a technique for dealing with observational error. HP Pavilion dv6-3052nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples (or observations) under differing conditions to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for each measurement, to help isolate what has changed. Mill's canons can then help us figure out what the important factor is.[72] Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect. HP Pavilion dv6-3034nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a double-blind study or an archaeological excavation. Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment which tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane. SONY VAIO PCG-6L2L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting an experiment. Detailed record keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results, HP Pavilion dv7-6107tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while controlled experiments can be seen in the works of Jābir ibn Hayyān (721–815 CE), al-Battani (853–929) and Alhazen (965–1039).[73] HP 495079-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The scientific method is iterative. At any stage it is possible to refine its accuracy and precision, so that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. HP Pavilion dv7-6135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject. SONY Vaio VGN-NW280F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Dell Vostro 3750 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else. Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility. HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. HP Pavilion G61-631NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by ball lightning (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of Benjamin Franklin.[78] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5107 laptop keyboard
To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research-granting agencies such as the National Science Foundation, and science journals, including Nature and Science, Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
have a policy that researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before. Scientific data archiving can be done at a number of national archives in the U.S. or in the World Data Center. GATEWAY P-6825 laptop keyboard
Peirce held that slow, stumbling ratiocination can be dangerously inferior to instinct and traditional sentiment in practical matters, and that the scientific method is best suited to theoretical research,[81] which in turn should not be trammeled by the other methods and practical ends; reason's "first rule" is that, in order to learn, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
one must desire to learn and, as a corollary, must not block the way of inquiry.[82] The scientific method excels the others by being deliberately designed to arrive – eventually – at the most secure beliefs, SONY VAIO VGN-AR770 laptop keyboard
upon which the most successful practices can be based. Starting from the idea that people seek not truth per se but instead to subdue irritating, inhibitory doubt, Peirce showed how, through the struggle, some can come to submit to truth for the sake of belief's integrity, seek as truth the guidance of potential practice correctly to its given goal, and wed themselves to the scientific method.[11][13] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
For Peirce, rational inquiry implies presuppositions about truth and the real; to reason is to presuppose (and at least to hope), as a principle of the reasoner's self-regulation, that the real is discoverable and independent of our vagaries of opinion. In that vein he defined truth as the correspondence of a sign (in particular, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
a proposition) to its object and, pragmatically, not as actual consensus of some definite, finite community (such that to inquire would be to poll the experts), but instead as that final opinion which all investigators would reach sooner or later but still inevitably, if they were to push investigation far enough, GATEWAY NX570X laptop keyboard
even when they start from different points.[83] In tandem he defined the real as a true sign's object (be that object a possibility or quality, or an actuality or brute fact, or a necessity or norm or law), which is what it is independently of any finite community's opinion and, pragmatically, depends only on the final opinion destined in a sufficient investigation. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community. Thus his theory of inquiry boils down to "Do the science." Those conceptions of truth and the real involve the idea of a community both without definite limits (and thus potentially self-correcting as far as needed) and capable of definite increase of knowledge.[84] As inference, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
"logic is rooted in the social principle" since it depends on a standpoint that is, in a sense, unlimited.[85]
induction as inferring, on the basis of tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis. Every inquiry, whether into ideas, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
brute facts, or norms and laws, arises from surprising observations in one or more of those realms (and for example at any stage of an inquiry already underway). All explanatory content of theories comes from abduction, HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
which guesses a new or outside idea so as to account in a simple, economical way for a surprising or complicative phenomenon. Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong. But the modicum of success of our guesses far exceeds that of sheer luck and seems born of attunement to nature by instincts developed or inherent, SONY VAIO VGN-CR31S Laptop Keyboard
especially insofar as best guesses are optimally plausible and simple in the sense, said Peirce, of the "facile and natural", as by Galileo's natural light of reason and as distinct from "logical simplicity". SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S Laptop Keyboard
Abduction is the most fertile but least secure mode of inference. Its general rationale is inductive: it succeeds often enough and, without it, there is no hope of sufficiently expediting inquiry (often multi-generational) toward new truths.[86] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Coordinative method leads from abducing a plausible hypothesis to judging it for its testability[87] and for how its trial would economize inquiry itself.[88] Peirce calls his pragmatism "the logic of abduction".[89] His pragmatic maxim is: "HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Consider what effects that might conceivably have practical bearings you conceive the objects of your conception to have. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object".[83] HP G60-249WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
His pragmatism is a method of reducing conceptual confusions fruitfully by equating the meaning of any conception with the conceivable practical implications of its object's conceived effects – a method of experimentational mental reflection hospitable to forming hypotheses and conducive to testing them. It favors efficiency. IBM MCF-C10AM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests. A simple but unlikely guess, if uncostly to test for falsity, may belong first in line for testing. A guess is intrinsically worth testing if it has instinctive plausibility or reasoned objective probability, while subjective likelihood, Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
though reasoned, can be misleadingly seductive. Guesses can be chosen for trial strategically, for their caution (for which Peirce gave as example the game of Twenty Questions), breadth, and incomplexity.[90] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
One can hope to discover only that which time would reveal through a learner's sufficient experience anyway, so the point is to expedite it; the economy of research is what demands the leap, so to speak, of abduction and governs its art.[88] HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
hilosophy of science looks at the underpinning logic of the scientific method, at what separates science from non-science, and the ethic that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions derived from philosophy that form the base of the scientific method – namely, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions frommethodological naturalism form the basis on which science is grounded. Logical Positivist, empiricist, falsificationist, and other theories have claimed to give a definitive account of the logic of science, but each has in turn been criticized. HP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
Thomas Kuhn examined the history of science in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, and found that the actual method used by scientists differed dramatically from the then-espoused method. His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures. GATEWAY 101974 laptop keyboard
Norwood Russell Hanson, Imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn have done extensive work on the "theory laden" character of observation. Hanson (1958) first coined the term for the idea that all observation is dependent on the conceptual framework of the observer, HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
using the concept of gestalt to show how preconceptions can affect both observation and description.[94] He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a "different" sun rise despite the same physiological phenomenon. Kuhn[95] and Feyerabend[96] acknowledge the pioneering significance of his work. ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
Kuhn (1961) said the scientist generally has a theory in mind before designing and undertaking experiments so as to make empirical observations, and that the "route from theory to measurement can almost never be traveled backward". SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
This implies that the way in which theory is tested is dictated by the nature of the theory itself, which led Kuhn (1961, p. 166) to argue that "once it has been adopted by a profession ... no theory is recognized to be testable by any quantitative tests that it has not already passed".[97] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Paul Feyerabend similarly examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a methodological process. In his book Against Method he argues that scientific progress is not the result of applying any particular method. In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. Thus, if believers in scientific method wish to express a single universally valid rule, Feyerabend jokingly suggests, it should be 'anything goes'.[98] Criticisms such as his led to the strong programme, a radical approach to the sociology of science. HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing debate, known as the science wars, is the result of conflicting values and assumptions between the postmodernist and realist camps. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
Whereas postmodernists assert that scientific knowledge is simply another discourse (note that this term has special meaning in this context) and not representative of any form of fundamental truth, realists in the scientific community maintain that scientific knowledge does reveal real and fundamental truths about reality. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730F laptop keyboard
Many books have been written by scientists which take on this problem and challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate method of deriving truth.[99] HP Pavilion DV7-3112tx laptop keyboard
Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all scientific discoveries are estimated to have been stumbled upon, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.[100] Louis Pasteur is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected.[100][101] HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
This is what professor of economics Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world.[14] DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard
Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try and fix what they think is an error in their method. Eventually, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
At this point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.[100][101] HP G72-110SA Laptop Keyboard
The development of the scientific method is inseparable from the history of science itself. Ancient Egyptian documents describe empirical methods in astronomy,[103] mathematics,[104] and medicine.[105] TOSHIBA NSK-TN0SV Laptop Keyboard
In the 7th century BC Daniel, a Jewish captive of theBabylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, conducted a scientific experiment complete with a hypothesis, a control group, HP Mini 210-1135LA Laptop Keyboard
a treatment group, and a conclusion. The control group partook of the king’s delicacies and wine, whereas Daniel’s test group limited themselves to vegetables and water.[106] At the end of the test, Daniel’s hypothesis was proven true. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
The ancient Greek philosopher Thales in the 6th century BC refused to accept supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
The development of deductive reasoning by Plato was an important step towards the scientific method. HP AELX9U00110 Laptop Keyboard
However in order for true scientific method to develop, Aristotle could not be taken at face value. Errors in his “On the Heavens” and “Physics” had to be realized and corrected. Moreover, the pagan view common in the world during that era followed two concepts that prevented them from progressing toward a functional scientific method: HP Mini 1001TU Laptop Keyboard
According to Haffner, cultures that were thus debilitated included Chinese, Hindu, Meso-American, Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek and Arabic.[107]
Early Christian leaders such as Clement of Alexandria (150–215) and Basil of Caesarea (330–379) encouraged future generations to view the Greek wisdom as “handmaidens to theology” DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard
and science was considered a means to more accurate understanding of the Bible and of God.[108]Augustine of Hippo (354–430) who contributed great philosophical wealth to the Latin Middle Ages, advocated the study of science and was wary of philosophies that disagreed with the Bible, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
such as astrology and the Greek belief that the world had no beginning.[108] This Christian accommodation with Greek science “laid a foundation for the later widespread, intensive study of natural philosophy during the Late Middle Ages.” ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
[108] However the division of Latin-speaking Western Europe from the Greek-speaking East,[108]followed by barbarian invasions, the Plague of Justinian, and the Islamic invasion,[109] resulted in the West largely losing access to Greek wisdom. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
By the 8th century Islam had overrun the Christian lands[110] of Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt[111] This swift occupation further severed Western Europe from many of the great works of Aristotle, Plato, Euclid and others, many of which were housed in the great library of Alexandria. Having come upon such a wealth of knowledge, the Arabs, HP Pavilion dv7-4170ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
who viewed non-Arab languages as inferior, even as a source of pollution,[112] employed conquered Christians and Jews to translate these works from the native Greek and Syriac into Arabic[113] HP Pavilion dv4-1506tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Thus equipped, Arab philosopher Alhazen performed optical and physiological experiments, reported in his manifold works, the most famous being Book of Optics(1021).[114] He was thus a forerunner of scientific method, Compaq Presario CQ61-411WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
having understood that a controlled environment involving experimentation and measurement is required in order to draw educated conclusions. Other Arab polymaths of the same era produced copious works on mathematics, IBM FRU 46L4753 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
philosophy, astronomy and alchemy. Most stuck closely to Aristotle, being hesitant to admit that some of Aristotle’s thinking was errant,[115] while others strongly criticized him.
During these years, occasionally a paraphrased translation from the Arabic, which itself had been translated from Greek and Syriac, might make its way to the West for scholarly studyHP Pavilion dv6-3190sf Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
. It was not until 1204, during which the Latins conquered and took Constantinople from the Byzantines in the name of the fourth Crusade, that a renewed scholarly interest in the original Greek manuscripts began to grow. SONY Vaio VGN-FZ21E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Due to the new easier access to the libraries of Constantinople by Western scholars, a certain revival in the study and analysis of the original Greek texts by Western scholars began.[116] From that point a functional scientific method that would launch modern science was on the horizon.
Grosseteste (1175–1253), HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
an English statesman, scientist and Christian theologian, was "the principal figure" in bringing about "a more adequate method of scientific inquiry" by which "medieval scientists were able eventually to outstrip their ancient European and Muslim teachers" (Dales 1973:62). ... HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
His thinking influenced Roger Bacon, who spread Grosseteste's ideas from Oxford to the University of Paris during a visit there in the 1240s. From the prestigious universities in Oxford and Paris, the new experimental science spread rapidly throughout the medieval universities: "And so it went to Galileo, William Gilbert, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Francis Bacon, William Harvey, Descartes, Robert Hooke, Newton, Leibniz, and the world of the seventeenth century" (Crombie 1962:15). So it went to us also.| Hugh G. Gauch, 2003.[117]
Roger Bacon (1214–1294), an English thinker and experimenter, is recognized by many to be the father of modern scientific method. DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard
His view that mathematics was essential to a correct understanding of natural philosophy was considered to be 400 years ahead of its time.[119] He was viewed as “a lone genius proclaiming the truth about time,” having correctly calculated the calendar[119] ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
His work in optics provided the platform on which Newton, Descartes, Huygens and others later transformed the science of light. Bacon’s groundbreaking advances were due largely to his discovery that experimental science must be based on mathematics. (186–187) HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
His works Opus Majus and De Speculis Comburentibus contain many “carefully drawn diagrams showing Bacon’s meticulous investigations into the behavior of light.”[119] He gives detailed descriptions of systematic studies using prisms and measurements by which he shows how a rainbow functions.[119] TOSHIBA Qosmio F20 Series Laptop Keyboard
Others who advanced scientific method during this era included Albertus Magnus (c.1193–1280), Theodoric of Freiberg, (c.1250–c.1310), William of Ockham (c.1285–c.1350), and Jean Buridan (c.1300–c.1358). These were not only scientists but leaders of the church – Christian archbishops, friars and priests. HP Pavilion dv3-2310ea Laptop Keyboard
By the late 15th century, the physician-scholar Niccolò Leoniceno was finding errors in Pliny's Natural History. As a physician, Leoniceno was concerned about these botanical errors propagating to the materia medica on which medicines were based.[120] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
To counter this, a botanical garden was established at Orto botanico di Padova, University of Padua (in use for teaching by 1546), in order that medical students might have empirical access to the plants of a pharmacopia. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
Following the physician Galen's method of medicine, Sanches lists the methods of judgement and experience, which are faulty in the wrong hands,[122] and we are left with the bleak statement That Nothing is Known (1581). SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
This challenge was taken up by René Descartes in the next generation (1637), but at the least, Sanches warns us that we ought to refrain from the methods, summaries, and commentaries on Aristotle, if we seek scientific knowledge.
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In this, he is echoed by Francis Bacon, also influenced by skepticism; Sanches cites the humanist Juan Luis Vives who sought a better educational system, as well as a statement of human rights as a pathway for improvement of the lot of the poor. SONY Vaio PCG-K415B laptop keyboard
The modern scientific method crystallized no later than in the 17th and 18th centuries. In his work Novum Organum (1620) – a reference to Aristotle's Organon– Francis Bacon outlined a new system of logic to improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism.[123] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5359 laptop keyboard
Then, in 1637, René Descartes established the framework for scientific method's guiding principles in his treatise, Discourse on Method. The writings of Alhazen, Bacon and Descartes are considered critical in the historical development of the modern scientific method, as are those of John Stuart Mill.[124] HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the development of current scientific methodology generally. Peirce accelerated the progress on several fronts. Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational alternatives, Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
focusing upon bothdeduction and induction. He thus placed induction and deduction in a complementary rather than competitive context (the latter of which had been the primary trend at least since David Hume, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
who wrote in the mid-to-late 18th century). Secondly, and of more direct importance to modern method, Peirce put forth the basic schema for hypothesis/testing that continues to prevail today. Extracting the theory of inquiry from its raw materials in classical logic, he refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address the then-current problems in scientific reasoning. IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of reasoning that, as discussed above in this article, play a role in inquiry today, the processes that are currently known as abductive,deductive, and inductive inference. TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8906 laptop keyboard
Thirdly, he played a major role in the progress of symbolic logic itself – indeed this was his primary specialty.
Beginning in the 1930s, Karl Popper argued that there is no such thing as inductive reasoning.[125] All inferences ever made, including in science, are purely[126] deductive according to this view. Accordingly, Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
he claimed that the empirical character of science has nothing to do with induction – but with the deductive property of falsifiability that scientific hypotheses have. Contrasting his views with inductivism and positivism, he even denied the existence of the scientific method: "(1) There is no method of discovering a scientific theory (2) Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
There is no method for ascertaining the truth of a scientific hypothesis, i.e., no method of verification; (3) There is no method for ascertaining whether a hypothesis is 'probable', or probably true".[127] ILenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
nstead, he held that there is only one universal method, a method not particular to science: The negative method of criticism, or colloquially termed trial and error. It covers not only all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, art and so on, but also the evolution of life. Following Peirce and others, ACER KB.T3007.001 laptop keyboard
Popper argued that science is fallible and has no authority.[127] In contrast to empiricist-inductivist views, he welcomed metaphysics and philosophical discussion and even gave qualified support to myths[128] and pseudosciences.[129] Popper's view has become known as critical rationalism. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Although science in a broad sense existed before the modern era, and in many historical civilizations (as described above), modern science is so distinct in itsapproach and successful in its results that it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term.[130] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S9513BN laptop keyboard
The question of the relationship of scientific method to religion is a controversial one, both regarding to what degree scientific method had its origins in Christian theism, and to what degree the scientific method as understood today is compatible with religion. SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
In the 18th century, the birth of the scientific method was largely credited to the work of Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and John Locke, although modern history has shown that much earlier figures such as Roger Bacon and Islamic scientists played an important role in shaping the experimental method. Thomas Jeffersonwrote "Bacon, Locke and Newton... HP Pavilion dv6-3131tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences"[131] HP 622029-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
All three of these men were Christian theists who nonetheless rejected medieval Scholasticism with its synthesis of Aristotle and theology. Furthermore, Locke and Newton were both theological Unitarians, Toshiba Satellite L675D-S7047 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
disbelieving in the divinity of Christ. Some historians speculate that Francis Bacon dabbled in esoteric beliefs such as Rosicrucianism or Freemasonry. Nonetheless, Newton saw God as masterful creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of creation.[132] SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
The notion that modern scientific method was given a boost by Christianity was heavily argued by Alfred North Whitehead in his 1925 book Science and the Modern World. He writes "faith in the possibility of science, SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
generated antecedently to the development of modern scientific theory, is an unconscious derivative from medieval theology".[133] On the other hand the notion that scientific method and theology were in conflict from the beginning was argued by Bertrand Russell in his 1931 book The Scientific Outlook, DELL NSK-D8C01 laptop keyboard
arguing that science introduced induction and therefore reasoning about the past into Western thought, and that because Galileo "questioned both Aristotle and the Scriptures, [he] thereby destroyed the whole edifice of medieval knowledge."[134] Acer eMachines G730Z laptop keyboard
A similar contrast of views appears in more recent publications. Christian apologist C.S. Lewis wrote in Miracles
‘Men became scientific because they expected Law in Nature, and they expected Law in Nature because they believed in a Legislator. In most modern scientists this belief has died: it will be interesting to see how long their confidence in uniformity survives it. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Two significant developments have already appeared—the hypothesis of a lawless sub-nature, and the surrender of the claim that science is true. We may be living nearer than we suppose to the end of the Scientific Age.’[135] SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
Christian philosopher Alvin Plantinga has echoed Whitehead in writing "It is important to see that our notion of the laws of nature, crucial for contemporary science, has this origin in Christian theism"[136] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
Regarding the current practice of science, Plantinga has also argued that belief in God is a "properly basic belief" and Christian philosopher William Lane Craig further argues that is presupposed by scientific inquiry, as it is required to explain why the universe in intelligible or lawful. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
On the other hand, the notion that the intelligibility of the universe does not need God to be explained is a position known as "philosophical naturalism", and has been defended by philosophers such as Quentin Smith.[137] Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard
However, philosopher Kai Nielsen (largely quoting Sidney Hook) states that what unites philosophers who call themselves "naturalists" is that they agree that the scientific method is the proper way of fixing beliefs, Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
that it is the only reliable method of arriving at truth, given its dependence on public verifiability of its finding. The scientific method does not need to presuppose any transcendent reality (sometimes called "skyhooks") to validate itself. SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard
It is justified by the expectations set by its known successes. Nielsen says that "metaphysics" can be left to "spirit-seers and other crazies".[138] (Sidney Hook Skeptic philosopher Daniel Dennett has argued that a full extension of the scientific method to all knowledge leads ultimately to a naturalistic understanding of the origins of religion in his book Breaking the Spell,[139] TOSHIBA Satellite M35X-S161 laptop keyboard
echoing Bertrand Russell's dictum "what science cannot discover, mankind cannot know".
Sidney Hook, the philosopher quoted by Nielsen, did not limit knowable truth to what is found in the laboratory. However he regarded science as providing a general paradigm for all rational inquiry,[140][141] and regarded religion as metaphysical speculation. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Science provided a model of verifiability and "critical intelligence" that was in some ways generalizable to other areas of inquiry, including up to a point public policy issues. However, for Hook, asserting the primacy of scientific method required no foundational metaphysical beliefs, but was justified by its empirical success.[142] HP Pavilion dv5-1095eo laptop keyboard
Critics of "philosophical naturalism" often decry positions like this as "scientism", a frequent target of C.S. Lewis, especially in his book The Abolition of Man often cited by Christian apologists today.[143] Lewis regards the position of scientism as dehumanizing and reductionistic. "Scientism" has been similarly criticized by William Lane Craig,[144][145] SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
who regards it as self-refuting in the sense that the validity of science cannot itself be proven scientifically. In response to such criticisms, Daniel Dennett has said that "when someone puts forward a scientific theory that [religious critics] really don't like, they just try to discredit it as 'scientism'",[146] IBM 42T4026 laptop keyboard
while his fellow skeptic Michael Shermer has embraced the label on that grounds that cosmology and evolutionary theory now answer the questions once posed by theology.[147] C. S. Lewis' friend and fellow science-fiction writer Arthur C. HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
Clarke viewed religion as antithetical to the scientific method, because religion consists of premature conclusions concerning the ultimate truth, thus substituting faith for knowledge.[148]
The question of the extent of the contribution of ancient non-Christian civilizations (especially medieval Islam) to the growth of scientific method has also been disputed. HP 6730S laptop keyboard
The oldest natural science is astronomy which was developed independently by Chinese, Indians, Mayans, Egyptians, Greeks, and Arabs.[149] Science-fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke has noted that during medieval times, Muslims made great strides in astronomy and algebra while scientific development in the Christian West languished.[150] Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Robert Briffault, in The Making of Humanity, asserted that the very existence of science, as it is understood in the modern sense, is rooted in the scientific thought and knowledge that emerged in Islamic civilizations during this time.[151] HP Pavilion dv6-2016ax Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
It has however been argued by physicist and priest Stanley Jaki that the source of the Arab difficulty in getting beyond Aristotle lay in the Islamic worldview, which often saw natural phenomenon as a direct product of the unpredictable will of Allah.[152] SONY Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
in conjunction with the belief that that nature was alive and divine.[153][154] as reflected in their pursuit of astrology and adherence to folk traditions. However, other historians have argued that Ibn Al-Haytham's approach to testing and experimentation was a critical contribution to scientific method. HP Pavilion dv7-6b55dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
This includes Rosan Gorini in her book Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision.[155]Robert Briffault, in The Making of Humanity, asserts that the very existence of science, as it is understood in the modern sense, is rooted in the scientific thought and knowledge that emerged in Islamic civilizations during the medieval era.[151] APPLE MacBook Pro 15 inch MA610LL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Similarly, Bradley Steffens's book Ibn Al-Haytham: First Scientist has argued that Alhazen's approach to testing and experimentation was a critical contribution to scientific method. According to Matthias Schramm, Alhazen: HP G71-340US Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
It may be simultaneously true both that Christian thinking played an important role in the rise of modern science given theology's commitment to an intelligible universe (as Alfred Whitehead and Alvin Plantinga have argued), HP Pavilion dv7-6166nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
while at the same time Christians have periodically been repelled by the actual findings of science in part causing the modern scientific community to abandon whatever Christian roots early modern science had. HP Pavilion dv6-3050et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
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Studies have shown that in the United States scientists are less likely to believe in God than the rest of the population. Precise statistics vary, but generally about 1/3 of scientists are atheists, 1/3 agnostic, and 1/3 have some belief in God (although some might be deistic, for example).[159][160][161] This is in contrast to the more than roughly 3/4 of the general population that believe in some God in the United States. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Relationship with mathematics
Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against observables. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. HP Pavilion dv5-2135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines can clearly distinguish what is known from what isunknown at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof). In mathematics, HP Pavilion dv7t-6100 CTO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
a statement need not yet be proven; at such a stage, that statement would be called a conjecture. But when a statement has attained mathematical proof, that statement gains a kind of immortality which is highly prized by mathematicians, and for which some mathematicians devote their lives.[162] Compaq Presario CQ61-435SA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other.[163] For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the Poincaré conjecture has been proven using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see Ricci flow). ASUS M51SE Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure. Eugene Wigner's paper, HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well known mathematicians such as Gregory Chaitin, HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
and others such as Lakoff and Núñez) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science. SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
George Pólya's work on problem solving,[164] the construction of mathematical proofs, and heuristic[165][166] show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling each other in using iterative or recursive steps. HP G71-343US laptop keyboard
and consequently was easily separated from it if the statue was carried off or destroyed. A case where both statue and pedestal are preserved is offered by the Victory, signed on its pedestal by Paeonius at Olympia. Occasionally, and more frequently in later times, HP G61-409CA Laptop Keyboard
the artist's signature was carved upon some portion of the statue itself. But in later copies of well-kown works, it has to be considered whether the name is that of the original artist or of the copyist who reproduced his work. (see for example, the "statue of Hercules/Heracles" below) DELL Vostro 3500 Laptop Keyboard
A special class of artists' signatures is offered by the names signed by Attic and other vase painters upon their vases. SONY VGN-FE790 Laptop Keyboard
These have been made the basis of a minute historical and stylistic study of the work of these painters, and unsigned vases also have been grouped with the signed ones, so as to make an exact and detailed record of this branch of Greek artistic production.[15]
Historical Records ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
The great majority of these fall into one of the classes already referred to. But there are some instances in which an inscription is set up merely as a record. For instance, a victor in athletic or other contests may set up a list of his victories. HP Compaq NW8440 Laptop Keyboard
The most famous historical record is the autobiographical account of the deeds and administration of Augustus, which was reproduced and set up in many places; it is generally known as theMonumentum Ancyranum, HP Pavilion DV3000 Laptop Keyboard
because the most complete copy of it was found at Ancyra. The Marmor Parium at Oxford, found in Paros, is a chronological record of Greek history, probably made for educational purposes, and valuable as giving the traditional dates of events from the earliest time down.[16] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5227 Laptop Keyboard
Tombs and Epitaphs
This is by far the most numerous class of inscriptions, both Greek and Latin. In early times there is often no record beyond the name of the deceased in Athens, often with the name of his father and his deme. ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard
Sometimes a word or two of conventional praise is added, such as "a good and wise man". Occasionally the circumstances of death are alluded to, especially if it took place in battle or at sea. Such epitaphs were frequently in metrical form, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
usually either hexameteror elegiacs. Many of them have been collected, and they form an interesting addition to the Greek anthology. In later times it becomes usual to give more elaborate praise of the deceased; SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard
but this is hardly ever so detailed and fulsome as on more modern tombstones. The age and other facts about the deceased are occasionally given, but not nearly so often as on Latin tombstones, which offer valuable statistical information in this respect.[17] LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 Laptop Keyboard
Latin inscriptions may be classified on much the same lines as Greek; but certain broad distinctions may be drawn at the outset. They are generally more standardised as to form and as to content, not only in Rome and ItalyDELL Vostro PP38L Laptop Keyboard
, but also throughout the provinces of the Roman Empire. One of the chief difficulties in deciphering Latin Inscriptions lies in the very extensive use of initials and abbreviations. These are of great number and variety, and while some of them can be easily interpreted as belonging to well-known formulae, others offer considerable difficulty, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
especially to the inexperienced student.[18] Often the same initial may have many different meanings according to the context. Some common formulae such as V.S.L.M. (votum solvit libens merito), or H.M.H.N.S. (hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur) HP MP-08K33US-930 Laptop Keyboard
offer little difficulty, but there are many which are not so obvious and leave room for conjecture. Often the only way to determine the meaning is to search through a list of initials, such as those given by modern Latin epigraphists, until a formula is found which fits the context. HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
Most of what has been said about Greek inscriptions applies to Roman also. The commonest materials in this case also are stone, marble and bronze; but a more extensive use is made of stamped bricks and tiles, which are often of historical value as identifying and dating a building or other construction. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R52 1870 Laptop Keyboard
The same applies to leaden water pipes which frequently bear dates and names of officials. Terracotta lamps also frequently have their makers' names and other information stamped upon them. Arms, and especially shields, LENOVO IdeaPad S10e 4068 laptop keyboard
sometimes bear the name and corps of their owners. Leaden discs were also used to serve the same purpose as modern identification discs. Inscriptions are also found on sling bullets — Roman as well as Greek; there are also numerous classes oftesserae or tickets of admission to theatres or other shows. FUJITSU Lifebook S7210 laptop keyboard
As regards the contents of inscriptions, there must evidently be a considerable difference between records of a number of independent city states and an empire including almost all the civilised world; but municipalities maintained much of their independent traditions in Roman times, and consequently their inscriptions often follow the old formulas. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM laptop keyboard
The classification of Roman inscriptions may, therefore, follow the same lines as the Greek, except that certain categories are absent, and that some others, not found in Greek, are of considerable importance. Compaq Presario CQ42-137TU laptop keyboard
A certain number of these dating from republican times are of considerable interest. One of the earliest relates to the prohibition of bacchanalian orgies in Italy; it takes the form of a message from the magistrates, stating the authority on which they acted. Laws all follow a fixed formula, according to the body which has passed them. HP Pavilion DV7-2277cl laptop keyboard
First there is a statement that the legislative body was consulted by the appropriate magistrate in due form; then follows the text of the law; and finally the sanction, the statement that the law was passed. In decrees of the senate the formula differs somewhat. They begin with a preamble giving the names of the consulting magistrates, HP G61-409CA laptop keyboard
the place and conditions of the meeting; then comes the subject submitted for decision, ending with the formulaQDERFP (quid de ea re fieri placeret); then comes the decision of the senate, opening with DERIC (de ea re ita censuerunt). C. is added at the end, LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 laptop keyboard
to indicate that the decree was passed. In imperial times, the emperor sometimes addressed a speech to the senate, advising them to pass certain resolutions, or else, especially in later times, gave orders or instructions directly, SONY Vaio VGN-AW310J laptop keyboard
either on his own initiative or in response to questions or references. The number and variety of such orders is such that no classification of them can be given here. One of the most famous is the edict of Diocletian, fixing the prices of all commodities. Copies of this in Greek as well as in Latin have been found in various parts of the Roman Empire.[20] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5227 laptop keyboard
Records of Buildings, etc.
A very large number of inscriptions record the construction or repair of public buildings by private individuals, by magistrates, Roman or provincial, and by emperors. In addition to the dedication of temples, we find inscriptions recording the construction of aqueducts, ACER Aspire 4315 laptop keyboard
roads, especially on milestones, baths,basilicas, porticos and many other works of public utility. In inscriptions of early period often nothing is given but the name of the person who built or restored the edifice and a statement that he had done so. But later it was usual to give more detail as to the motive of the building, ASUS F82Q laptop keyboard
the name of the emperor or a magistrate giving the date, the authority for the building and the names and distinctions of the builders; then follows a description of the building, the source of the expenditure (e.g., S.P., sua pecunia) and finally the appropriate verb for the work done, GATEWAY MX6956 laptop keyboard
whether building, restoring, enlarging or otherwise improving. Other details are sometimes added, such as the name of the man under whose direction the work was done.
These vary greatly in content, and are among the most important documents concerning the administration of the Roman Empire. "IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R52 laptop keyboard
They are numerous and of all sorts — tombstones of every degree, lists of soldiers' burial clubs, certificates of discharge from service, schedules of time-expired men, dedications of altars, records of building or of engineering works accomplished. COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard
The facts directly commemorated are rarely important."[21] But when the information from hundreds of such inscriptions is collected together, "you can trace the whole policy of the Imperial Government in the matter of recruiting, ACER Aspire 4736Z laptop keyboard
to what extent and till what date legionaries were raised in Italy; what contingents for various branches of the service were drawn from the provinces, and which provinces provided most; how far provincials garrisoned their own countries, and which of them, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
like the British recruits, were sent as a measure of precaution to serve elsewhere; or, finally, at what epoch the empire grew weak enough to require the enlistment of barbarians from beyond its frontiers."[21] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Honorary inscriptions are extremely common in all parts of the Roman world. Sometimes they are placed on the bases of statues, sometimes in documents set up to record some particular benefaction or the construction of some public work. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard
The offices held by the person commemorated, and the distinctions conferred upon him are enumerated in a regularly established order (cursus honorum), either beginning with the lower and proceeding step by step to the higher, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
or in reverse order with the highest first. Religious and priestly offices are usually mentioned before civil and political ones. These might be exercised either in Rome itself, or in the verious municipalities of the empire. TOSHIBA Satellite L40-14Y laptop keyboard
There was also a distinction drawn between offices that might be held only by persons of senatorial rank, those that were assigned to persons of equestrian rank, and those of a less distinguished kind. It follows that when only a portion of an inscription has been found, it is often possible to restore the whole in accordance with the accepted order.[3] HP Pavilion dv6-3030em laptop keyboard
Signatures of Artists
When these are attached to statues, it is sometimes doubtful whether the name is that of the man who actually made the statue, or of the master whose work it reproduces. Thus there are two well-known copies of a statue of Hercules by Lysippus, of which one is said to be the work of Lysippus, DELL E141395 laptop keyboard
and the other states that it was made by Glycon (see images). Another kind of artist's or artificer's signature that is commoner in Roman times is to be found in the signatures of potters upon lamps and various kinds of vessels; they are usually impressed on the mould and stand out in relief on the terracotta or other material. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
These are of interest as giving much information as to the commercial spread of various kinds of handicrafts, and also as to the conditions under which they were manufactured.
These are probably the most numerous of all classes of inscriptions; and though many of them are of no great individual interest, they convey, when taken collectively, Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard
much valuable information as to the distribution and transference of population, as to trades and professions, as to health and longevity, and as to many other conditions of ancient life. The most interesting early series is that on the tombs of the Scipios at Rome, recording, mostly in Saturnian Metre, the exploits and distinctions of the various members of that family.[22] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
About the end of the republic and the beginning of the empire, it became customary to head a tombstone with the letters D.M. or D.M.S. (Dis Manibus sacrum), thus consecrating the tomb to the deceased as having become members of the body of ghosts or spirits of the dead. These are followed by the anem of the deceased, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
usually with his father's name and his tribe, by his honours and distinctions, sometimes by a record of his age. The inscription often concludes with H.I. (Hic iacet), or some similar formula, and also, frequently, with a statement of boundaries and a prohibition of violation or further use — for instance, H.M.H.N.S.( SONY VAIO PCG-FR415S laptop keyboard
hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur, this monument is not to pass to the heir). The person who has erected the monument and his relation to the deceased are often stated; or if a man has prepared the tomb in his lifetime, this also may be stated, V.S.F. HP Pavilion dv6-3190sf laptop keyboard
(vivus sibi fecit). But it is obvious that there is an immense variety in the information that either a man himself or his friend may wish to record.[22]
Milestones and Boundaries HP 636191-001 laptop keyboard
Milestones (miliaria) have already been referred to, and may be regarded as records of the building of roads. Boundary stones (termini) are frequently found, both of public and private property. A well-known instance is offered by those set up by the commissioners called III. viri A.I.A. (agris iudicandis adsignandis) in the time of the Gracchi.[3] DELL Latitude D430 laptop keyboard
In conclusion, one may say that Latin inscriptions are the meeting point of Roman history and several arts. These are arts of expression or composition, writing in the strictly physical sense, and design or arrangement. The history is Roman history in its largest sense, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
involving men and women in many of their affairs, such as life and death, government, law, religious worship — all as illustrated above. The related fields one has to enter in order to fully appreciate the epigraphical study, are many: beside all aspects of Roman history, such more restricted but still large fields as ancient jewelry, ASUS X82S laptop keyboard
Etruscology, Italic and Latinphilology, ancient pottery, comparative palaeography, Roman nomenclature, Latin verse, lexicography (including inconsistencies of spelling, the early lack of a standard orthography0, Roman architecture and prosopography, and the pronunciation of Greek as revealed by the rendering of Greek words in Latin inscriptions and of Latin words in Greek.[23] HP Pavilion dv6-2160ep laptop keyboard
the Peiraeus which has been completely reconstructed on paper by architects from the building specification.[3][11] In the case of the Erechtheum, we have not only a detailed report on the unfinished state of the building in 409 BC, but also accounts of the expenditure and payments to the workmen employed in finishing it. HP G62-450SV laptop keyboard
Similar accounts have been preserved of the building of theParthenon, spread over 15 years; in the case of both the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, there are included the payments made to those who made the sculptures.[7][12] HP Mini 110-1014NR laptop keyboard
Naval and military expenditure is also fully accounted for; among other information there are records of the galley-slips at the different harbours of the Piraeus, and of the ships of the Athenian navy, with their names and condition. ASUS X82S laptop keyboard
In short, there is no department of state economy and financial administration that is not abundantly illustrated by the record of inscriptions.[11] A set of records of high historical value are the "tribute lists", recording the quota paid to Athens by her subject allies during the 5th century BC. These throw much light on her relations with them at verious periods.(Cf. DELIAN LEAGUE).
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There are not only records of lists of ephebi and of their guardians and instructors, but also decrees in honour of their services, especially in taking their due part in religious and other ceremonies, HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard
and resolutions of the ephebi themselves in honour of their officials. It is possible to trace in the inscriptions, which range over several centuries, how what was originally a system of physical and military training for Athenian youths from age of 18 to 20, HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
with outpost and police duties, was gradually transformed. In later times there were added to the instructors in military exercises others who gave lectures on what we should now call arts and science subjects; so that in the Hellenistic and Roman times, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard
when youths from all parts of the civilised world flocked to Athens as an intellectual centre, the ephebic system became a kind of cosmopolitan university.[13]
Treaties and political and Commercial Agreements; Arbitration, etc. TOSHIBA NSK-TAJ01 Laptop Keyboard
In addition to inscriptions which are concerned with the internal affairs of various cities, there are many others recording treaties or other agreements of an international character between various cities and states. ACER Aspire 5051AWXMi Laptop Keyboard
These were incised on bronze or stone, and set up in places of public resort in the cities concerned, or in common religious centres such as Olympia and Delphi. The simplest form of treaty is merely an alliance for a certain term of years, usually with some penalty for any breach of the conditions. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
Often an oath was prescribed, to be taken by representatives on each side; it was also not unusual to appeal to the god in whose temple the treaty was exhibited. In other cases a list of gods by whom the two parties must swear is prescribed. Commercial clauses were sometimes added to treaties of alliance, and commercial treaties are also found, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
agreeing as to the export and import of merchandise and other things. In later days, especially in the time of the Hellenistic kings, treaties tend to become more complicated and detailed in their provisions.[9] ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard
Another series of records of great historical interest is concerned with arbitration between various states on various questions, mainly concerned with frontiers. In cases of dispute it was not uncommon for the two disputants to appoint a third party as arbitrator. Sometimes this third party was another State, sometimes a specified number of individuals. HP PK13ZK31000 Laptop Keyboard
Thus, in a frontier dispute between Corinth and Epidaurus, 151 citizens of Megara were appointed by name to arbitrate, and when the decision was disputed, 31 from among them revised and confirmed it. In all such cases it was the custom for a full record to be preserved on stone and set up in the places concerned. ACER ZU2 Laptop Keyboard
In this case the initiative in referring the matter to arbitration came from the Achaean League.[3]
Proxenia Decrees
A very large class of inscriptions deals with the institution of proxenia. According to this a citizen of any State might be appointed proxenos of another State; his duties would then be to offer help and hospitality to any citizen of that other State who might be visiting his city, and to assist him in any dispute or in securing his legal rights. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
The office has been compared to the modern appointment of consuls, with the essential difference that the proxenos is always a citizen of the state in which he resides, not of that whose citizens and interests he assists. HP Pavilion dv6-2040ev laptop keyboard
The decrees upon this matter frequently record the appointment of a proxenos, and the conferring on him of certain benefits and privileges in return for his services; they also contain resolutions of thanks from the city served by the proxenos, and record honours consequently conferred upon him.[14] SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard
Honours and Privileges Given to Individuals
This class of inscription is in form not unlike the last, except that honours recorded are given for all sorts of services, private and public, to the State and to individuals. A frequent addition is an invitation to dine in the Prytaneum at Athens. Some are inscribed on the bases of statues set up to the recipient. In early times these inscriptions are usually brief and simple. TOSHIBA Satellite L775-S7245 laptop keyboard
The bust of Pericles on the Acropolis held nothing but the names of Pericles himself and of the sculptor Kresilas. Later it became usual to give, in some Another elements in Greek religion which is known to us almost exclusively by means of inscriptions, is to be found in the religious associations that existed in many Greek cities, apart from the organisation of state religion, though sometimes recognised by it. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
These associations had each its own regulations, which were duly recorded in inscriptions; they varied greatly both in purpose and in character. Many of them had a definitely religious purpose, in the worship of certain gods; sometimes an alien community was given special permission to worship its own god or gods in its own way. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5107 laptop keyboard
Other associations were more social in character and served as clubs, or as burial societies. A remarkable feature about such associations is that the lists of members of many of them include the names of women and of slaves, thus contrasting with the civic basis of established religion in Greece, and anticipating a religion in which Toshiba Satellite A50-111 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
"there can be neither Jew nor Greek, there can be neither bond nor free, there can be no male and female." (Galatians 3:28). Ancient writers state that the earliest laws of Athens were inscribed upon tablets of wood, Toshiba Satellite A205-S5804 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
put together in a pyramidal shape. These, owing to their material, have perished; but we have some very early codes of law preserved on stone, notably atGortyna in Crete. Here an inscription of great length is incised on the slabs of a theatre-shaped structure in 12 columns of 50 lines each; it is mainly concerned with the law of inheritance, adoption, HP Pavilion dv8229ea Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
etc. Doubtless similar inscriptions were set up in many places in Greece. An interesting series of inscriptions deals with the conditions under which colonists were sent out from various cities, and the measures that were taken to secure their rights as citizens. DELL Studio 1450 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A bronze tablet records in some detail the arrangements of this sort made when Locrians established a colony in Naupactus; another inscription relates to the Athenian colonisation of Salamis, in the 6th century BC. DELL Studio 1458 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Decrees of People and Rulers, later of Kings and Emperors
A very large number of inscriptions are in the form of decrees of various cities and peoples, even when their subject matter suggests that they should be classified under other headings. Almost all legislative and many administrative measures take this form; often a decree prescribes how and where the inscription should be set up. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad W500 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The formulae and preambles of such decrees vary considerably from place to place, and from period to period. Those of Athens are by far the most exactly known, owing to the immense number that have been discovered; and they are so strictly stereotyped that can be classified with the precision of algebraical formulae, HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
and often dated to within a few years by this test alone. Very full lists for this purpose have been drawn up by epigraphist Wilhelm Larfeld, in his work on the subject.[10] It is usual to record the year (by the name of the eponymous archon), the day of the month and of the prytany (or presiding commission according to tribes), HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
various secretaries, the presiding officials and the proposer of the decree. It is also stated whether the resolution is passed by the senate (Boule) or the assembly of the people (Ecclesia), or both. The circumstances or the reason of the resolution are then given, and finally the decision itself. Some other cities followed Athens in the form of their decrees, HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard
with such local variations as were required; others were more independent in their development, and different magistracies or forms of government had various results. In the Hellenistic Age, and later, the forms of independent government were, to a great extent, kept up, though little real power remained with the people. SONY V072078AS1 Laptop Keyboard
On the other hand it is common thing to find letters from kings, and later from Roman emperors, inscribed and set up in public places.[3]
Public Accounts, Treasure Lists, Building Inscriptions HP Pavilion dv6-2130er Laptop Keyboard
It was customary to inscribe on stone all records of the receipt, custody and expenditure of public money or treasure, so that citizens could verify for themselves the safety and due control of the State in all financial matters. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard
As in the case of temple accounts, it was usual for each temporary board of officials to render to their successors an account of their stewardship, and of the resources and treasures which they handed over. In all cases of public works, the expenditure was ordered by the State, SONY Vaio PCG-K86P Laptop Keyboard
and detailed reports were drawn up and inscribed on stone at intervals while the work was being carried out. In many cases there is a detailed specification of building work which makes it possible, not only to realise all the technical details and processes employed, When there is any doubt about any ritual or procedure, HP Pavilion dm1-1010sa Laptop Keyboard
divination is often resorted to, and the results of such divination are recorded in inscriptions as a guidance for the future; it was also a common practice to consult Delphi or some otheroracle in doubtful or difficult cases; SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
there the exact method of procedure is sometimes recorded, as well as the response of the oracle. Forms of worship are often prescribed or recorded, especially hymns, which are sometimes inscribed together with their musical notation. The performance of songs or hymns and dances are also matters of constant reference, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315M Laptop Keyboard
especially in connection with lyrical or musical contests; the victorious band or performer often dedicated the prize in honour of the god. A special form of contest was that in dramatic performances, of which many records have survived, ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard
both from Athens and from many other parts of the Greek world. The regulation of athletic festivals, and the records of victors in their contests, also form a numerous class of inscriptions. As regards mysteries, ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard
though there are numerous regulations affecting the arrangement of celebrations and the conduct of those participating, there is, as was to be expected, very little concerning the actual performances. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard
Another interesting phase of Greek religion known to us mainly from inscriptions is offered by the shrines of healing. The most notable of these is the precinct of Asclepius at Epidaurus. Here have been found, on large slabs of inscription, compiled, in all probability, from earlier documents, lists of the cures effected by Apollo and Asclepius. SONY Vaio VPC-EB42FM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The cures are of the most varied kinds, from painful diseases or surgical cases to a lost boy and a broken cup. The formula is in almost all cases the same: the consultant come to Epidaurus, sleeps in the abaton, has dreams or sees visions, and comes out whole. In later times, when such faith-healing had probably become less efficacious, elaborate prescriptions of diet and hygiene are recorded.[7] HP Mini 110-3120ss Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
A special form of prayer consists of curses, which were often buried in the ground, probably with the intent to reach the infernal gods. Such curses often give the reason for their being made, usually some injury done to the author of the curse; sometimes they devote the offender to the infernal gods.[3] HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
but also the whole plan and structure of a building. A notable instance is the arsenal of Philon at
detail, the reasons for the honours awarded; and in Hellenistic and Roman times, these became more and more detailed and fulsome in laudatory detail. Toshiba AB7005HX-SB3 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Signatures of Artists
If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Thus, much scientifically based speculation might convince one (or many) that the hypothesis that other intelligent species exist is true. But since there no experiment now known which can test this hypothesis, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In future, some new technique might lead to an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science. HP 3MLX8TATP20 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed, when compared to a crucial experiment. HP Pavilion dv2820es Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to further testing. Theexperimental control is a technique for dealing with observational error. HP Pavilion dv6-3052nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples (or observations) under differing conditions to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for each measurement, to help isolate what has changed. Mill's canons can then help us figure out what the important factor is.[72] Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect. HP Pavilion dv6-3034nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a double-blind study or an archaeological excavation. Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment which tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane. SONY VAIO PCG-6L2L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting an experiment. Detailed record keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results, HP Pavilion dv7-6107tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while controlled experiments can be seen in the works of Jābir ibn Hayyān (721–815 CE), al-Battani (853–929) and Alhazen (965–1039).[73] HP 495079-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The scientific method is iterative. At any stage it is possible to refine its accuracy and precision, so that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. HP Pavilion dv7-6135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject. SONY Vaio VGN-NW280F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Dell Vostro 3750 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else. Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility. HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. HP Pavilion G61-631NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by ball lightning (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of Benjamin Franklin.[78] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5107 laptop keyboard
To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research-granting agencies such as the National Science Foundation, and science journals, including Nature and Science, Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
have a policy that researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before. Scientific data archiving can be done at a number of national archives in the U.S. or in the World Data Center. GATEWAY P-6825 laptop keyboard
Peirce held that slow, stumbling ratiocination can be dangerously inferior to instinct and traditional sentiment in practical matters, and that the scientific method is best suited to theoretical research,[81] which in turn should not be trammeled by the other methods and practical ends; reason's "first rule" is that, in order to learn, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
one must desire to learn and, as a corollary, must not block the way of inquiry.[82] The scientific method excels the others by being deliberately designed to arrive – eventually – at the most secure beliefs, SONY VAIO VGN-AR770 laptop keyboard
upon which the most successful practices can be based. Starting from the idea that people seek not truth per se but instead to subdue irritating, inhibitory doubt, Peirce showed how, through the struggle, some can come to submit to truth for the sake of belief's integrity, seek as truth the guidance of potential practice correctly to its given goal, and wed themselves to the scientific method.[11][13] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
For Peirce, rational inquiry implies presuppositions about truth and the real; to reason is to presuppose (and at least to hope), as a principle of the reasoner's self-regulation, that the real is discoverable and independent of our vagaries of opinion. In that vein he defined truth as the correspondence of a sign (in particular, FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
a proposition) to its object and, pragmatically, not as actual consensus of some definite, finite community (such that to inquire would be to poll the experts), but instead as that final opinion which all investigators would reach sooner or later but still inevitably, if they were to push investigation far enough, GATEWAY NX570X laptop keyboard
even when they start from different points.[83] In tandem he defined the real as a true sign's object (be that object a possibility or quality, or an actuality or brute fact, or a necessity or norm or law), which is what it is independently of any finite community's opinion and, pragmatically, depends only on the final opinion destined in a sufficient investigation. FUJITSU Lifebook S6230 laptop keyboard
That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community. Thus his theory of inquiry boils down to "Do the science." Those conceptions of truth and the real involve the idea of a community both without definite limits (and thus potentially self-correcting as far as needed) and capable of definite increase of knowledge.[84] As inference, DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
"logic is rooted in the social principle" since it depends on a standpoint that is, in a sense, unlimited.[85]
induction as inferring, on the basis of tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis. Every inquiry, whether into ideas, Lenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
brute facts, or norms and laws, arises from surprising observations in one or more of those realms (and for example at any stage of an inquiry already underway). All explanatory content of theories comes from abduction, HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
which guesses a new or outside idea so as to account in a simple, economical way for a surprising or complicative phenomenon. Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong. But the modicum of success of our guesses far exceeds that of sheer luck and seems born of attunement to nature by instincts developed or inherent, SONY VAIO VGN-CR31S Laptop Keyboard
especially insofar as best guesses are optimally plausible and simple in the sense, said Peirce, of the "facile and natural", as by Galileo's natural light of reason and as distinct from "logical simplicity". SONY VAIO VGN-AW21S Laptop Keyboard
Abduction is the most fertile but least secure mode of inference. Its general rationale is inductive: it succeeds often enough and, without it, there is no hope of sufficiently expediting inquiry (often multi-generational) toward new truths.[86] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard
Coordinative method leads from abducing a plausible hypothesis to judging it for its testability[87] and for how its trial would economize inquiry itself.[88] Peirce calls his pragmatism "the logic of abduction".[89] His pragmatic maxim is: "HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Consider what effects that might conceivably have practical bearings you conceive the objects of your conception to have. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object".[83] HP G60-249WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
His pragmatism is a method of reducing conceptual confusions fruitfully by equating the meaning of any conception with the conceivable practical implications of its object's conceived effects – a method of experimentational mental reflection hospitable to forming hypotheses and conducive to testing them. It favors efficiency. IBM MCF-C10AM05 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests. A simple but unlikely guess, if uncostly to test for falsity, may belong first in line for testing. A guess is intrinsically worth testing if it has instinctive plausibility or reasoned objective probability, while subjective likelihood, Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard
though reasoned, can be misleadingly seductive. Guesses can be chosen for trial strategically, for their caution (for which Peirce gave as example the game of Twenty Questions), breadth, and incomplexity.[90] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
One can hope to discover only that which time would reveal through a learner's sufficient experience anyway, so the point is to expedite it; the economy of research is what demands the leap, so to speak, of abduction and governs its art.[88] HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
hilosophy of science looks at the underpinning logic of the scientific method, at what separates science from non-science, and the ethic that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions derived from philosophy that form the base of the scientific method – namely, HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl laptop keyboard
that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions frommethodological naturalism form the basis on which science is grounded. Logical Positivist, empiricist, falsificationist, and other theories have claimed to give a definitive account of the logic of science, but each has in turn been criticized. HP Pavilion DV7-3079wm laptop keyboard
Thomas Kuhn examined the history of science in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, and found that the actual method used by scientists differed dramatically from the then-espoused method. His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures. GATEWAY 101974 laptop keyboard
Norwood Russell Hanson, Imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn have done extensive work on the "theory laden" character of observation. Hanson (1958) first coined the term for the idea that all observation is dependent on the conceptual framework of the observer, HP Pavilion DV6-1120ev laptop keyboard
using the concept of gestalt to show how preconceptions can affect both observation and description.[94] He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, SONY VAIO VGN-SZ140P laptop keyboard
and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a "different" sun rise despite the same physiological phenomenon. Kuhn[95] and Feyerabend[96] acknowledge the pioneering significance of his work. ACER Aspire 5673WLMi laptop keyboard
Kuhn (1961) said the scientist generally has a theory in mind before designing and undertaking experiments so as to make empirical observations, and that the "route from theory to measurement can almost never be traveled backward". SONY VAIO VGN-N21E/W laptop keyboard
This implies that the way in which theory is tested is dictated by the nature of the theory itself, which led Kuhn (1961, p. 166) to argue that "once it has been adopted by a profession ... no theory is recognized to be testable by any quantitative tests that it has not already passed".[97] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Paul Feyerabend similarly examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a methodological process. In his book Against Method he argues that scientific progress is not the result of applying any particular method. In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard
one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. Thus, if believers in scientific method wish to express a single universally valid rule, Feyerabend jokingly suggests, it should be 'anything goes'.[98] Criticisms such as his led to the strong programme, a radical approach to the sociology of science. HP 590527-001 laptop keyboard
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing debate, known as the science wars, is the result of conflicting values and assumptions between the postmodernist and realist camps. HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard
Whereas postmodernists assert that scientific knowledge is simply another discourse (note that this term has special meaning in this context) and not representative of any form of fundamental truth, realists in the scientific community maintain that scientific knowledge does reveal real and fundamental truths about reality. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730F laptop keyboard
Many books have been written by scientists which take on this problem and challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate method of deriving truth.[99] HP Pavilion DV7-3112tx laptop keyboard
Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all scientific discoveries are estimated to have been stumbled upon, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.[100] Louis Pasteur is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard
but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected.[100][101] HP Pavilion dv6-3178ee Laptop Keyboard
This is what professor of economics Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard
human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world.[14] DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard
Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try and fix what they think is an error in their method. Eventually, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
At this point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.[100][101] HP G72-110SA Laptop Keyboard
The development of the scientific method is inseparable from the history of science itself. Ancient Egyptian documents describe empirical methods in astronomy,[103] mathematics,[104] and medicine.[105] TOSHIBA NSK-TN0SV Laptop Keyboard
In the 7th century BC Daniel, a Jewish captive of theBabylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, conducted a scientific experiment complete with a hypothesis, a control group, HP Mini 210-1135LA Laptop Keyboard
a treatment group, and a conclusion. The control group partook of the king’s delicacies and wine, whereas Daniel’s test group limited themselves to vegetables and water.[106] At the end of the test, Daniel’s hypothesis was proven true. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
The ancient Greek philosopher Thales in the 6th century BC refused to accept supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. HP 365485-001 Laptop Keyboard
The development of deductive reasoning by Plato was an important step towards the scientific method. HP AELX9U00110 Laptop Keyboard
However in order for true scientific method to develop, Aristotle could not be taken at face value. Errors in his “On the Heavens” and “Physics” had to be realized and corrected. Moreover, the pagan view common in the world during that era followed two concepts that prevented them from progressing toward a functional scientific method: HP Mini 1001TU Laptop Keyboard
According to Haffner, cultures that were thus debilitated included Chinese, Hindu, Meso-American, Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek and Arabic.[107]
Early Christian leaders such as Clement of Alexandria (150–215) and Basil of Caesarea (330–379) encouraged future generations to view the Greek wisdom as “handmaidens to theology” DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard
and science was considered a means to more accurate understanding of the Bible and of God.[108]Augustine of Hippo (354–430) who contributed great philosophical wealth to the Latin Middle Ages, advocated the study of science and was wary of philosophies that disagreed with the Bible, SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard
such as astrology and the Greek belief that the world had no beginning.[108] This Christian accommodation with Greek science “laid a foundation for the later widespread, intensive study of natural philosophy during the Late Middle Ages.” ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
[108] However the division of Latin-speaking Western Europe from the Greek-speaking East,[108]followed by barbarian invasions, the Plague of Justinian, and the Islamic invasion,[109] resulted in the West largely losing access to Greek wisdom. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
By the 8th century Islam had overrun the Christian lands[110] of Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt[111] This swift occupation further severed Western Europe from many of the great works of Aristotle, Plato, Euclid and others, many of which were housed in the great library of Alexandria. Having come upon such a wealth of knowledge, the Arabs, HP Pavilion dv7-4170ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
who viewed non-Arab languages as inferior, even as a source of pollution,[112] employed conquered Christians and Jews to translate these works from the native Greek and Syriac into Arabic[113] HP Pavilion dv4-1506tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Thus equipped, Arab philosopher Alhazen performed optical and physiological experiments, reported in his manifold works, the most famous being Book of Optics(1021).[114] He was thus a forerunner of scientific method, Compaq Presario CQ61-411WM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
having understood that a controlled environment involving experimentation and measurement is required in order to draw educated conclusions. Other Arab polymaths of the same era produced copious works on mathematics, IBM FRU 46L4753 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
philosophy, astronomy and alchemy. Most stuck closely to Aristotle, being hesitant to admit that some of Aristotle’s thinking was errant,[115] while others strongly criticized him.
During these years, occasionally a paraphrased translation from the Arabic, which itself had been translated from Greek and Syriac, might make its way to the West for scholarly studyHP Pavilion dv6-3190sf Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
. It was not until 1204, during which the Latins conquered and took Constantinople from the Byzantines in the name of the fourth Crusade, that a renewed scholarly interest in the original Greek manuscripts began to grow. SONY Vaio VGN-FZ21E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Due to the new easier access to the libraries of Constantinople by Western scholars, a certain revival in the study and analysis of the original Greek texts by Western scholars began.[116] From that point a functional scientific method that would launch modern science was on the horizon.
Grosseteste (1175–1253), HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
an English statesman, scientist and Christian theologian, was "the principal figure" in bringing about "a more adequate method of scientific inquiry" by which "medieval scientists were able eventually to outstrip their ancient European and Muslim teachers" (Dales 1973:62). ... HP 646578-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
His thinking influenced Roger Bacon, who spread Grosseteste's ideas from Oxford to the University of Paris during a visit there in the 1240s. From the prestigious universities in Oxford and Paris, the new experimental science spread rapidly throughout the medieval universities: "And so it went to Galileo, William Gilbert, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
Francis Bacon, William Harvey, Descartes, Robert Hooke, Newton, Leibniz, and the world of the seventeenth century" (Crombie 1962:15). So it went to us also.| Hugh G. Gauch, 2003.[117]
Roger Bacon (1214–1294), an English thinker and experimenter, is recognized by many to be the father of modern scientific method. DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard
His view that mathematics was essential to a correct understanding of natural philosophy was considered to be 400 years ahead of its time.[119] He was viewed as “a lone genius proclaiming the truth about time,” having correctly calculated the calendar[119] ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard
His work in optics provided the platform on which Newton, Descartes, Huygens and others later transformed the science of light. Bacon’s groundbreaking advances were due largely to his discovery that experimental science must be based on mathematics. (186–187) HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard
His works Opus Majus and De Speculis Comburentibus contain many “carefully drawn diagrams showing Bacon’s meticulous investigations into the behavior of light.”[119] He gives detailed descriptions of systematic studies using prisms and measurements by which he shows how a rainbow functions.[119] TOSHIBA Qosmio F20 Series Laptop Keyboard
Others who advanced scientific method during this era included Albertus Magnus (c.1193–1280), Theodoric of Freiberg, (c.1250–c.1310), William of Ockham (c.1285–c.1350), and Jean Buridan (c.1300–c.1358). These were not only scientists but leaders of the church – Christian archbishops, friars and priests. HP Pavilion dv3-2310ea Laptop Keyboard
By the late 15th century, the physician-scholar Niccolò Leoniceno was finding errors in Pliny's Natural History. As a physician, Leoniceno was concerned about these botanical errors propagating to the materia medica on which medicines were based.[120] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard
To counter this, a botanical garden was established at Orto botanico di Padova, University of Padua (in use for teaching by 1546), in order that medical students might have empirical access to the plants of a pharmacopia. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
Following the physician Galen's method of medicine, Sanches lists the methods of judgement and experience, which are faulty in the wrong hands,[122] and we are left with the bleak statement That Nothing is Known (1581). SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
This challenge was taken up by René Descartes in the next generation (1637), but at the least, Sanches warns us that we ought to refrain from the methods, summaries, and commentaries on Aristotle, if we seek scientific knowledge.
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In this, he is echoed by Francis Bacon, also influenced by skepticism; Sanches cites the humanist Juan Luis Vives who sought a better educational system, as well as a statement of human rights as a pathway for improvement of the lot of the poor. SONY Vaio PCG-K415B laptop keyboard
The modern scientific method crystallized no later than in the 17th and 18th centuries. In his work Novum Organum (1620) – a reference to Aristotle's Organon– Francis Bacon outlined a new system of logic to improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism.[123] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5359 laptop keyboard
Then, in 1637, René Descartes established the framework for scientific method's guiding principles in his treatise, Discourse on Method. The writings of Alhazen, Bacon and Descartes are considered critical in the historical development of the modern scientific method, as are those of John Stuart Mill.[124] HP Pavilion dv6-2170ee laptop keyboard
In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the development of current scientific methodology generally. Peirce accelerated the progress on several fronts. Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational alternatives, Compaq Presario CQ56-109WM laptop keyboard
focusing upon bothdeduction and induction. He thus placed induction and deduction in a complementary rather than competitive context (the latter of which had been the primary trend at least since David Hume, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard
who wrote in the mid-to-late 18th century). Secondly, and of more direct importance to modern method, Peirce put forth the basic schema for hypothesis/testing that continues to prevail today. Extracting the theory of inquiry from its raw materials in classical logic, he refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address the then-current problems in scientific reasoning. IBM 42T3671 laptop keyboard
Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of reasoning that, as discussed above in this article, play a role in inquiry today, the processes that are currently known as abductive,deductive, and inductive inference. TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8906 laptop keyboard
Thirdly, he played a major role in the progress of symbolic logic itself – indeed this was his primary specialty.
Beginning in the 1930s, Karl Popper argued that there is no such thing as inductive reasoning.[125] All inferences ever made, including in science, are purely[126] deductive according to this view. Accordingly, Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
he claimed that the empirical character of science has nothing to do with induction – but with the deductive property of falsifiability that scientific hypotheses have. Contrasting his views with inductivism and positivism, he even denied the existence of the scientific method: "(1) There is no method of discovering a scientific theory (2) Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard
There is no method for ascertaining the truth of a scientific hypothesis, i.e., no method of verification; (3) There is no method for ascertaining whether a hypothesis is 'probable', or probably true".[127] ILenovo 3000 Y500 laptop keyboard
nstead, he held that there is only one universal method, a method not particular to science: The negative method of criticism, or colloquially termed trial and error. It covers not only all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, art and so on, but also the evolution of life. Following Peirce and others, ACER KB.T3007.001 laptop keyboard
Popper argued that science is fallible and has no authority.[127] In contrast to empiricist-inductivist views, he welcomed metaphysics and philosophical discussion and even gave qualified support to myths[128] and pseudosciences.[129] Popper's view has become known as critical rationalism. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Although science in a broad sense existed before the modern era, and in many historical civilizations (as described above), modern science is so distinct in itsapproach and successful in its results that it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term.[130] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S9513BN laptop keyboard
The question of the relationship of scientific method to religion is a controversial one, both regarding to what degree scientific method had its origins in Christian theism, and to what degree the scientific method as understood today is compatible with religion. SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard
In the 18th century, the birth of the scientific method was largely credited to the work of Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and John Locke, although modern history has shown that much earlier figures such as Roger Bacon and Islamic scientists played an important role in shaping the experimental method. Thomas Jeffersonwrote "Bacon, Locke and Newton... HP Pavilion dv6-3131tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences"[131] HP 622029-001 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
All three of these men were Christian theists who nonetheless rejected medieval Scholasticism with its synthesis of Aristotle and theology. Furthermore, Locke and Newton were both theological Unitarians, Toshiba Satellite L675D-S7047 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
disbelieving in the divinity of Christ. Some historians speculate that Francis Bacon dabbled in esoteric beliefs such as Rosicrucianism or Freemasonry. Nonetheless, Newton saw God as masterful creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of creation.[132] SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
The notion that modern scientific method was given a boost by Christianity was heavily argued by Alfred North Whitehead in his 1925 book Science and the Modern World. He writes "faith in the possibility of science, SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
generated antecedently to the development of modern scientific theory, is an unconscious derivative from medieval theology".[133] On the other hand the notion that scientific method and theology were in conflict from the beginning was argued by Bertrand Russell in his 1931 book The Scientific Outlook, DELL NSK-D8C01 laptop keyboard
arguing that science introduced induction and therefore reasoning about the past into Western thought, and that because Galileo "questioned both Aristotle and the Scriptures, [he] thereby destroyed the whole edifice of medieval knowledge."[134] Acer eMachines G730Z laptop keyboard
A similar contrast of views appears in more recent publications. Christian apologist C.S. Lewis wrote in Miracles
‘Men became scientific because they expected Law in Nature, and they expected Law in Nature because they believed in a Legislator. In most modern scientists this belief has died: it will be interesting to see how long their confidence in uniformity survives it. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Two significant developments have already appeared—the hypothesis of a lawless sub-nature, and the surrender of the claim that science is true. We may be living nearer than we suppose to the end of the Scientific Age.’[135] SONY VAIO VGN NR240E laptop keyboard
Christian philosopher Alvin Plantinga has echoed Whitehead in writing "It is important to see that our notion of the laws of nature, crucial for contemporary science, has this origin in Christian theism"[136] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series laptop keyboard
Regarding the current practice of science, Plantinga has also argued that belief in God is a "properly basic belief" and Christian philosopher William Lane Craig further argues that is presupposed by scientific inquiry, as it is required to explain why the universe in intelligible or lawful. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 laptop keyboard
On the other hand, the notion that the intelligibility of the universe does not need God to be explained is a position known as "philosophical naturalism", and has been defended by philosophers such as Quentin Smith.[137] Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard
However, philosopher Kai Nielsen (largely quoting Sidney Hook) states that what unites philosophers who call themselves "naturalists" is that they agree that the scientific method is the proper way of fixing beliefs, Lenovo 45N2106 laptop keyboard
that it is the only reliable method of arriving at truth, given its dependence on public verifiability of its finding. The scientific method does not need to presuppose any transcendent reality (sometimes called "skyhooks") to validate itself. SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard
It is justified by the expectations set by its known successes. Nielsen says that "metaphysics" can be left to "spirit-seers and other crazies".[138] (Sidney Hook Skeptic philosopher Daniel Dennett has argued that a full extension of the scientific method to all knowledge leads ultimately to a naturalistic understanding of the origins of religion in his book Breaking the Spell,[139] TOSHIBA Satellite M35X-S161 laptop keyboard
echoing Bertrand Russell's dictum "what science cannot discover, mankind cannot know".
Sidney Hook, the philosopher quoted by Nielsen, did not limit knowable truth to what is found in the laboratory. However he regarded science as providing a general paradigm for all rational inquiry,[140][141] and regarded religion as metaphysical speculation. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard
Science provided a model of verifiability and "critical intelligence" that was in some ways generalizable to other areas of inquiry, including up to a point public policy issues. However, for Hook, asserting the primacy of scientific method required no foundational metaphysical beliefs, but was justified by its empirical success.[142] HP Pavilion dv5-1095eo laptop keyboard
Critics of "philosophical naturalism" often decry positions like this as "scientism", a frequent target of C.S. Lewis, especially in his book The Abolition of Man often cited by Christian apologists today.[143] Lewis regards the position of scientism as dehumanizing and reductionistic. "Scientism" has been similarly criticized by William Lane Craig,[144][145] SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard
who regards it as self-refuting in the sense that the validity of science cannot itself be proven scientifically. In response to such criticisms, Daniel Dennett has said that "when someone puts forward a scientific theory that [religious critics] really don't like, they just try to discredit it as 'scientism'",[146] IBM 42T4026 laptop keyboard
while his fellow skeptic Michael Shermer has embraced the label on that grounds that cosmology and evolutionary theory now answer the questions once posed by theology.[147] C. S. Lewis' friend and fellow science-fiction writer Arthur C. HP Pavilion DV7-3067cl laptop keyboard
Clarke viewed religion as antithetical to the scientific method, because religion consists of premature conclusions concerning the ultimate truth, thus substituting faith for knowledge.[148]
The question of the extent of the contribution of ancient non-Christian civilizations (especially medieval Islam) to the growth of scientific method has also been disputed. HP 6730S laptop keyboard
The oldest natural science is astronomy which was developed independently by Chinese, Indians, Mayans, Egyptians, Greeks, and Arabs.[149] Science-fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke has noted that during medieval times, Muslims made great strides in astronomy and algebra while scientific development in the Christian West languished.[150] Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Robert Briffault, in The Making of Humanity, asserted that the very existence of science, as it is understood in the modern sense, is rooted in the scientific thought and knowledge that emerged in Islamic civilizations during this time.[151] HP Pavilion dv6-2016ax Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
It has however been argued by physicist and priest Stanley Jaki that the source of the Arab difficulty in getting beyond Aristotle lay in the Islamic worldview, which often saw natural phenomenon as a direct product of the unpredictable will of Allah.[152] SONY Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
in conjunction with the belief that that nature was alive and divine.[153][154] as reflected in their pursuit of astrology and adherence to folk traditions. However, other historians have argued that Ibn Al-Haytham's approach to testing and experimentation was a critical contribution to scientific method. HP Pavilion dv7-6b55dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
This includes Rosan Gorini in her book Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision.[155]Robert Briffault, in The Making of Humanity, asserts that the very existence of science, as it is understood in the modern sense, is rooted in the scientific thought and knowledge that emerged in Islamic civilizations during the medieval era.[151] APPLE MacBook Pro 15 inch MA610LL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Similarly, Bradley Steffens's book Ibn Al-Haytham: First Scientist has argued that Alhazen's approach to testing and experimentation was a critical contribution to scientific method. According to Matthias Schramm, Alhazen: HP G71-340US Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
It may be simultaneously true both that Christian thinking played an important role in the rise of modern science given theology's commitment to an intelligible universe (as Alfred Whitehead and Alvin Plantinga have argued), HP Pavilion dv7-6166nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
while at the same time Christians have periodically been repelled by the actual findings of science in part causing the modern scientific community to abandon whatever Christian roots early modern science had. HP Pavilion dv6-3050et Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
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Studies have shown that in the United States scientists are less likely to believe in God than the rest of the population. Precise statistics vary, but generally about 1/3 of scientists are atheists, 1/3 agnostic, and 1/3 have some belief in God (although some might be deistic, for example).[159][160][161] This is in contrast to the more than roughly 3/4 of the general population that believe in some God in the United States. HP KSB06105HA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Relationship with mathematics
Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against observables. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. HP Pavilion dv5-2135dx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines can clearly distinguish what is known from what isunknown at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof). In mathematics, HP Pavilion dv7t-6100 CTO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
a statement need not yet be proven; at such a stage, that statement would be called a conjecture. But when a statement has attained mathematical proof, that statement gains a kind of immortality which is highly prized by mathematicians, and for which some mathematicians devote their lives.[162] Compaq Presario CQ61-435SA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other.[163] For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the Poincaré conjecture has been proven using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see Ricci flow). ASUS M51SE Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure. Eugene Wigner's paper, HP G42-415DX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well known mathematicians such as Gregory Chaitin, HP 441541-001 Laptop Keyboard
and others such as Lakoff and Núñez) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science. SONY VGN-FE770G laptop keyboard
George Pólya's work on problem solving,[164] the construction of mathematical proofs, and heuristic[165][166] show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling each other in using iterative or recursive steps. HP G71-343US laptop keyboard