Alexander Radishchev
Radishchev was born into a minor noble family on an estate just outside of Moscow. His father, Nicholas Afanasevich Radischev, was a prominent landowner in Moscow who was known for humanely treating his 3000 plus serfs. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Keyboard
Until he was 8 years old he lived on his father's estate in Verkhni Oblyazovo, Saratov Oblast (today in Penza Oblast), one hundred miles west of the Volga river with a nurse and tutor, then was sent to live with a relative in Moscow, where he was allowed to spend time at the newly established Moscow University. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Keyboard
In 1765, his family connections provided him with an opportunity to serve as a page in Catherine's court, which he nonetheless regarded with suspicion for its ‘contempt for the Orthodox faith, and a desire to deliver the homeland into foreign (German) hands'.[1] ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Keyboard
Because of his exceptional academic promise, Radishchev was chosen of one of a dozen young students to be sent abroad to acquire Western learning. For several years he studied at the University of Leipzig. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Keyboard
· His foreign education influenced his approach to Russian society, and upon his return he hoped to incorporate Enlightenment philosophies such as natural law and the social contract to Russian conditions. Even as he served as a Titular Councillor, drafting legal protocols, in Catherine’s Civil Service, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
he lauded revolutionaries like George Washington and praised the early stages of the French Revolution, and found himself enamored of the Russian Freemason, Nicholas Ivanovich Novikov, whose publication “The Drone” offered the first public critiques of the government, particularly with regards to serfdom.[2] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
His sharp satire and indignation inspired Radischev's most famous work - A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow - in which he emulates Novikov’s harsh and passionate style. He too was especially critical of serfdom and the limits to personal freedom imposed by the autocracy. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
Catherine the Great read the work, viewed Radishchev's calls for reform as evidence of Jacobin-style radicalism, and ordered copies of the text confiscated and destroyed. Out of the 650 copies originally printed, only 17 survived to be reprinted in England fifty years later.[3] In 1790, Radischev was arrested and condemned to death. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
He humbly begged forgiveness of Catherine, publicly disowning his book and his sentence was commuted to exile to Ilimsk in Siberia. En route, the writer was treated like a common convict, shackled at the ankles and forced to endure the Russian cold from which he eventually fell ill. His friend, Count Alexander Vorontzov, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
who held sway with Catherine, interceded and managed to secure Radischev more appropriate accommodations, allowing him to return to Moscow to recover and restart his journey with dignity and comfort.[4] Beginning in October, 1790, Radischev’s two-year trip through Siberia took him through Siberia, stopping the towns of Ekaterinberg, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
Tobolsk, and Irkutsk before reaching the small town of Ilimsk in 1792. Along the way, he began writing a biography of Yermak, the Cossack conqueror of Siberia, and pursuing an interest in geology and nature. Settling in Ilimsk for five years with his second wife, Elizabeth Vasilievna Rubanovsky, and his two children, Radischev, SONY VGN-FE11M Keyboard
as the only educated man in the area, became the local doctor and saved several lives. He also wrote a long treatise, On Man, His Mortality, His Immortality, revered as one of the few great philosophical works of Russia.[5] In it, he addresses man’s belief in the afterlife, the corporality of the soul, and the faults of Materialism. ACER TravelMate 3232WXMi Keyboard
Radishchev was freed by Catherine's successor Tsar Paul, and attempted again to push for reforms in Russia's government. Under the reign of Alexander I, Radishchev was briefly employed to help revise Russian law, a realization of his lifelong dream. SONY VAIO VGN-CR42S Keyboard
Unfortunately, his tenure in this administrative body was short and unsuccessful. In 1802 a despondent Radishchev - possibly threatened with another Siberian exile - committed suicide by drinking poison. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315Z Keyboard
As a true student of the Enlightenment, Radischev held views that favored the freedom of the individual, Humanism, and patriotism. These values are best summed up by “equality of all classes before the law, abolition of the Table of Ranks, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Keyboard
trial by jury, religious toleration, freedom of the press, emancipation of manorial serfs, habeas corpus, and freedom of trade”.[7] Upon his return from Leipzig in 1771, Radischev saw with fresh eyes the stark contrast between life under liberal Western states like England and Switzerland and that under Russia’s autocracy. Echoing the sentiments of Catherine herself, HP 533549-001 Keyboard
he advocated education for all classes, a system he had the fortune to witness in a school in Irkutsk.[8] A more educated populace would provide the foundation for an eventual republican or parliamentary system. Of all of Russia’s social ills, Radischev especially despised the inequality and prolongation of serfdom, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4050 Keyboard
rooted in a traditional social system that enforced a strict hierarchy and permitted abuses and exploitation. Ironically, under Catherine’s enlightened reign, serfdom was intensified and spread to newly conquered territories.[9] While in Siberia, Radischev’s economic thought developed, DELL Vostro PP37L Keyboard
not only in terms of decreasing dependence on serfdom but denouncing international trade. Though influenced by Adam Smith, Radischev maintained protectionist views, condemning unnecessary international trade and proposing stronger domestic production. In the debate over Sino-Russian trade relations, he believed Russia’s own resources were enough to support it.[10] ACER Aspire 2920Z Keyboard
Criticizing the history of arbitrary rule in Russia, Radischev called autocracy the system of governance "most contrary to human nature".[11] Under this system, government was better positioned to breach its social contract with the governed, creating an unjust and oppressed society. Lenovo Thinkpad T420 Keyboard
He extends this system to master-serf relations as well, noting that seeking unlimited power is a natural human vice. Interestingly, Radischev does not sweepingly criticize all autocrats, but only tyrants, praising, in fact, Lycurgis, the philosopher king of Sparta who promoted equality and civil rights.[12] Radischev, however, did not believe in, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Keyboard
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or desire, bloody revolution and instead hoped for a reforming autocrat who would abolish serfdom and "maintain equality in society, protect the widow and the orphan and save the innocent from harm".[13] As a member of the ruling class, he didn’t seek to overturn autocracy but to persuade his countrymen and superiors to give up some of their vested power. SAMSUNG N150 Keyboard
In no way an idealist, the writer acknowledged that “where there was more enlightenment, where there was more social life, there was more corruption, so inseparable are good and evil on the earth.”[14] HP G62-224CA Keyboard
Radischev's religious and philosophical views were incredibly liberal for his time. Denying the belief that sensory experience is primary, Radischev, in On Man, His Mortality, His Immortality, speaks in favor of man's higher virtues as the main elements in complex human thought. DELL Precision M4500 Keyboard
He believed that man’s hereditary faculties have as much influence on his development as the external environment. He also points out, however, that there are common, innate traits that bind all people, particularly the belief in a higher power. The belief in immortality remains particularly potent for him, DELL Vostro 1014 Keyboard
both as a factor of faith and as a solace amidst the difficulties of life.
A few more narrowly specialized Moscow colleges, including the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology and the Moscow State Institute of International Relations were split off from MSU at one time or another and have since established strong reputations of their own, arguably even surpassing their parent in terms of prestige and quality of education. HP Pavilion dm3-1020CA Keyboard
The main Building in winter
The university has well-established contacts with the most distinguished universities in the world, exchanging students and lecturers with the leading international institutions of higher education. It houses the UNESCO International Demography Courses, the UNESCO Hydrology Courses, the International Biotechnology Center, HP 597635-001 Keyboard
the International LASER Center, courses or seminars on Russian as a foreign language. In 1991 the French University College, the Russian-American University and the Institute of German Science and Culture were opened. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Keyboard
The university has awarded honorary degrees to more than 60 scientists, statesmen and politicians from abroad. Many prominent university scholars and scientists in return hold honorary degrees from foreign academies and universities. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Keyboard
Moscow State University is one of Russia's most prestigious institutions of higher learning, and has demanding entry requirements for prospective students. Nonetheless, it performs inconsistently in international rankings. Lenovo 45N2106 Keyboard
While it was placed 77th overall[1] by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and 112th[2] by QS World University Rankings, it was not included among the top 200 universities[3] by recent Times Higher World University Rankings and came in at 296th (based on the full THE World University Rankings in their iPhone application). HP AEUT5U00010 Keyboard
On a highly cited and consistent ranking, Moscow State University ranked 43rd in 2008, 44th in 2009–2011, and 45th among 300 Best World Universities in 2012 compiled by Human Resources & Labor Review (HRLR) on Measurements of World's Top 300 Universities Graduates' Performance.[4] Despite its large number of faculties, TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Keyboard
Moscow State University seems to be strong mostly in natural sciences and mathematics (currently placed between 38th[2] and 75th[5] in the world) but considerably weaker in other disciplines. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E525 Keyboard
Despite the fact that it is still the highest ranked Russian university according to the three international rankings mentioned above (with the nearest Russian competitor being Saint Petersburg State University that scored 300–400th), SONY VAIO VGN-FS295XP Keyboard
the university was consistently placed outside top 5 nationally in 2010–2011 by Forbes[6] and Ria Novosti / HSE.,[7]with both ratings based on data set collected by GU VSHE from Russian Unified State Exam scores averaged per all students and faculties of university. IBM 42T3671 Keyboard
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The establishment of the university was at the initiative[clarification needed] of Ivan Shuvalov andMikhail Lomonosov. Russian Empress Elizabeth decreed its creation on January 25 [O.S. January 12] 1755. The first lectures were held on April 26. January 25 is still celebrated as Students' Day in Russia. HP Pavilion dv7-6187cl CPU Fan
St. Petersburg State University and Moscow State University have a friendly argument about which is actually Russia's oldest. While Moscow State University was established in 1755, its St. Toshiba Satellite A205-S5831 CPU Fan
Originally located in the Principal Medicine Store on Red Square, the university was transferred byCatherine the Great to a Neoclassical building on the other side of Mokhovaya Street. This main building was constructed between 1782 and 1793 in the Neo-Palladian style, designed by Matvei Kazakov, and rebuilt after the 1812 Fire of Moscow by Domenico Giliardi. IBM MCF-217PAM05 CPU Fan
In the 18th century, the university had three departments: philosophy, medicine, and law. A preparatory college was affiliated with the university before it was abolished in 1812. In 1779, Mikhail Kheraskov founded a boarding school for noblemen (Благородный APPLE 661-4952 CPU Fan
пансион), which was transformed into a gymnasium for the Russian nobility in 1830. The university press, run by Nikolay Novikov in the 1780s, published the most popular newspaper in Imperial Russia — Moskovskie Vedomosti. Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
In 1804, medical education was split into clinical (therapy), surgical, and obstetrics faculties. In 1884–1897, the Department of Medicine, supported by private donations, City Hall, and the national government, built an extensive, Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX CPU Fan
1.6 kilometer long, state-of-the-art medical campus in Devichye Pole, between the Garden Ring and Novodevichy Convent. It was designed by Konstantin Bykovsky, with university doctors like Nikolay Sklifosovskiy and Fyodor Erismann acting as consultants. The campus, and medical education in general, were separated from the university in 1918. HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
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Devichye Pole is now operated by the independent Moscow Medical Academy and various other state and private institutions.
The roots of student unrest reach deep into the 1800s. In 1905, a social-democratic organization was created at the university calling for the tsar to be overthrown and for Russia to be turned into a republic. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 Series CPU Fan
The Tsarist government repeatedly threatened to close the university. In 1911, in a protest over the introduction of troops onto the campus and mistreatment of certain professors, 130 scientists and professors resigned en masse, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
including prominent figures such asNikolay Dimitrievich Zelinskiy, Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev, and Sergei Alekseevich Chaplygin. Thousands of students were also expelled.
After the October Revolution in 1917, the school began admitting proletariat and peasant children. In 1919, tuition fees were abolished, IBM ThinkPad T60 2637 CPU Fan
and a preparatory facility was established to help working class children prepare for entrance exams. Political repression in the 1930s and 1950s severely limited intellectual freedoms. Soviet scholars had virtually no contact with their colleagues abroad. Certain branches of science (e.g., genetics) were condemned for alleged "APPLE MG62090V1-Q020-S99 CPU Fan
anti-Communist ideologies," and a number of scientists and scholars were sentenced to life imprisonment. During the implementation of Joseph Stalin's First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932), parts of the university were constructed by prisoners of the Gulag. As stated above, the intelligensia would later be ironically mocked, repressed, and imprisoned by Stalin. HP 535766-001 CPU Fan
Many Moscow State University professors, students, and staff were evacuated during the war first to Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, then to Sverdlovsk, returning to Moscow in 1943, after the German troops were defeated near the capital. During the war, over 3,000 specialists were trained at the university. HP Envy 17-1090eo CPU Fan
University scientists continued their research, and their contributions to applied science allowed improvements in aircraft development, the accuracy of artillery fire, etc. Also, new explosives were invented, a study of uranium was carried out, Dell Vostro 3350 CPU Fan
a blood coagulant was introduced into medical practice, university geologists discovered tungsten and new oil deposits in Central Asia, and university geographers supplied the Red Army with maps and charts. University lawyers made their contribution during the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials. TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 Keyboard
During the post-war period, Moscow State University's contribution to the restoration and further development of the country was recognized. There was a five-fold increase in state funding, and a new university campus was built on Vorobievy Gory (Sparrow Hills), where all the lecture halls and laboratories had the most modern equipment available. TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Keyboard
After 1991, nine new faculties were established. In 1992, the university was granted a unique status: it is funded directly from the state budget (bypassing the Ministry of Education), which provides a significant level of independence. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Keyboard
On September 6, 1997, the entire front of the university was used as the backdrop for a concert by French electronic musician Jean Michel Jarre, who had been specially invited to perform there by the mayor of the city. The entire front of the building was used as a giant projection screen, while fireworks, lasers, HP COMPAQ KSB05105HA CPU Fan
and searchlights were all launched from various points around the building. The stage was directly in front of the building, and the concert, titled "The Road To The 21st Century" in Russia, but renamed "Oxygen In Moscow" for worldwide video/DVD release, attracted a world record crowd of 3.5 million people. HP 538340-001 CPU Fan
On March 19, 2008, Russia's most powerful supercomputer to date, the SKIF MSU (Russian: СКИФ МГУ; skif is Russian for "scythian") was launched at the university. Its peak performance is 60 TFLOPS and LINPACK is 47.170 TFLOPS, making it the fastest supercomputer in the CIS.[15][16][17] HP Pavilion dv6-2150us CPU Fan
According to Federal Law N259-FZ, adopted on 10th November 2009 the university was granted a specific legal framework for its activities within the national educational context. DELL MD538 CPU Fan
The law recognizes the uniqueness of the university as a leading classical university and entitles it to wider academic freedom. The law provides university with the possibility of setting its own educational standards and entry requirements. HP Pavilion dv7-6187cl CPU Fan
Since 1953, most of the faculties have been situated on Sparrow Hills, in the southwest of Moscow, 5km from the city center. The main building was designed by architect Lev Vladimirovich Rudnev. In the post-war era, Joseph Stalin ordered seven huge tiered neoclassic towers to be built around the city. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
It was built using Gulagor labour, as were many of Stalin's Great Construction Projects in Russia.[18] Located on Moscow's outskirts at the time of its construction, the location of the main building is now about half-way between the center of Moscow at the Kremlin and the city's current limits. HP Pavilion dv7-3065dx CPU Fan
The Journalism Department now occupies the university's original location in downtown Moscow across from the Manezh, steps from the Kremlin and other government buildings. Indeed, frequent student unrest, including street protests, well pre-dating 1917 may be one reason why Stalin's planners sited the university across the Moscow River, so far away. HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
The MSU main building was the tallest building in the world outside of New York City at the time of its construction, and remained the tallest building in Europe until 1990. The central tower is 240 m tall, 36 stories high, and flanked by four huge wings of student and faculty accommodations. It is said to contain a total of 33 kilometers of corridors and 5,000 rooms. HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
Facilities available inside the building include a concert hall, a theater, a museum, administrative services, a library, a swimming pool, a police station, a post office, a laundry, a hairdresser's salon, several canteens, bank offices and ATMs, shops, cafeterias, SONY VAIO PCG-6L2L CPU Fan
a bomb shelter, etc. Along with the university administration, the Museum of Earth Sciences and four of the main faculties – Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics, the Faculty of Geology, the Faculty of Geography, HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
and the Faculty of Fine and Performing Arts – now reside in the Main building. The star on the top of the tower is large enough to include a small room and a viewing platform; it weighs 12 tons. The building's facades are ornamented with giant clocks, barometers, thermometers, statues, carved wheat sheaves, and Soviet crests. SONY Vaio VPC-EB1S0E/BJ CPU Fan
It stands before a terrace featuring statues of male and female students gazing optimistically and confidently into the future.
While the Sparrow Hills were on the outskirts of the city at the time of the construction of the main building, they are now about halfway from the Kremlin to the city limits. Several other buildings and sports facilities were later added to the campus, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
including the only baseball stadium in Russia. Currently, a new building is under construction for the social sciences faculties, and another new one of vast size has just been built for the library, which is the second-largest in Russia by volume (number of books). The university also has several dormitory buildings in the Southwest of Moscow, outside the campus. SONY Vaio VGN-BX760PS5 CPU Fan
The historical building on Mokhovaya Street now mainly houses the Faculty of Journalism, the Faculty of Psychology, and The Institute of Asian and African Studies. The university includes a number of faculty buildings located near Manege Square in the center of Moscow and a number of campuses abroad in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
The university's main library is one of the largest in Russia. Current estimates suggest that it contains approximately 9,000,000 volumes. The library serves in the area of 55,000 readers per year, using approximately 5,500,000 books. HP Pavilion dv7-3065dx CPU Fan
The university offers classes on its main campus not only in Moscow, but also on campuses in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan. These include the Puschino MSU campus, Podmoskovny MSU campus, Chernomorsky MSU campus and Kazakhstan MSU campus. The Ulyanovsk branch of MSU was reorganized into Ulyanovsk State University in 1996. HP 550 CPU Fan
Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov (Russian: Никола́й Ива́нович Новико́в) (8 May [O.S. 27 April] 1744, Moscow Governorate – 12 August [O.S. 31 July] 1818. Moscow Governorate) was a Russian writer and philanthropist most representative of his country'sEnlightenment. Frequently considered to be the first Russian journalist, he aimed at advancing the cultural and educational level of the Russian public. HP Pavilion dv7-3170ep CPU Fan
Novikov belonged to the first generation of Russians that benefited from the creation of the Moscow University in 1755. He took an active part in the Legislative Assembly of 1767, which sought to produce a new code of laws. Inspired by this kind of freethinking activity, IBM 26R8197 CPU Fan
he took over editing the Moscow Gazette and launched satirical journals, patterned after The Tatler and The Spectator. His attacks on the existing social customs prompted jocund retorts from Catherine the Great, who even set her own journal called Vsyakaya vsyachina to comment on Novikov's articles. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Keyboard
Together with Johann Georg Schwarz, Ivan Lopukhin, and Semyon Gamaleya he brought martinism and rosicrucianism to Russia.[1]By the 1780s, Novikov rose to the highest positions in Russian Freemasonry,[citation needed] which liberally funded his ambitious book-publishing ventures. ASUS F6VE Keyboard
Novikov's press produced a third part of contemporary Russian books and several newspapers. Novikov used his influence for various noble purposes, such as a large-scale project of promoting Shakespeare to Russian public. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Keyboard
When the French Revolution started, Catherine changed her attitude towards the likes of Novikov. His printing-house was confiscated. Three years later, without a formal trial, he was incarcerated in the Shlisselburg Fortress for 15 years. SONY VAIO VGN NR298E Keyboard
Much of his printed material was pulped, including 1,000 copies of Edward Young's The Last Day (1713). Emperor Paul set Novikov free, but the latter was too scared and broken-hearted to resume his journalistic activities. HP Mini 210 Keyboard
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Russian: Алекса́ндр Серге́евич Пу́шкин, tr. Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, IPA: [ɐlʲɪˈksandr sʲɪˈrɡʲejɪvʲɪt͡ɕ ˈpuʂkʲɪn] ( listen); 6 June [O.S. 26 May] 1799 – 10 February [O.S. 29 January] 1837) was a Russian author of the Romantic era[1] who is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet[2][3][4][5] and the founder of modern Russian literature.[6][7] Acer eMachines E732 Keyboard
Pushkin was born into Russian nobility in Moscow. His great-grandfather from his mother's side – Abram Gannibal – was brought over as a slave from Africa and had risen to become an aristocrat.[8] Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen, and was widely recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his graduation from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Keyboard
While under the strict surveillance of the Tsar's political police and unable to publish, Pushkin wrote his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov. His novel in verse, Eugene Onegin, was serialized between 1825 and 1832. TOSHIBA NSK-T4D01 Keyboard
Notoriously touchy about his honour, Pushkin fought as many as twenty-nine duels, and was fatally wounded in such an encounter with Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès. D'Anthès, a French officer serving with the Chevalier Guard Regiment, had been attempting to seduce the poet's wife, Natalya Pushkina. HP 405963-001 Keyboard
Pushkin's father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767–1848), was descended from a distinguished family of the Russian nobility that traced its ancestry back to the 12th century.[9][10]
Pushkin's mother Nadezhda (Nadya) Ossipovna Gannibal (1775–1836) was descended through her paternal grandmother fromGerman and Scandinavian nobility.[11][12] SAMSUNG Q35 Keyboard
She was the daughter of Ossip Abramovich Gannibal (1744–1807) and his wife, Maria Alekseyevna Pushkina (1745–1818).
Ossip Abramovich Gannibal's father, Pushkin's great-grandfather, was Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), a Black African page kidnapped and brought to Russia as a gift for Peter the Great. Abram wrote in a letter to Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great's daughter, HP Pavilion dv6-2133ee Keyboard
that he was from the town of "Lagon". Russian biographers concluded from the beginning that Lagon was in Ethiopia, a nation with Orthodox Christian associations. Vladimir Nabokov, when researching Eugene Onegin, cast serious doubt on this Ethiopian origin theory. In 1995 Dieudonné Gnammankou outlined a strong case that "Lagon" SONY VAIO VGN NR185E Keyboard
was a town located on the southern side of Lake Chad, now in northern Cameroon. However, there is no conclusive evidence for either theory.[9][10][12][13][14][15] After education in France as a military engineer, Abram Gannibal became governor of Reval and eventually Général en Chef (the third most senior army rank) in charge of the building of sea forts and canals in Russia. ACER 9J.N1H82.01D Keyboard
Born in Moscow, Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen. By the time he finished school as part of the first graduating class of the prestigiousImperial Lyceum in Tsarskoe Selo near Saint Petersburg, HP Pavilion dv7-2185dx CPU Fan
his talent was already widely recognized within the Russian literary scene. After school, Pushkin plunged into the vibrant and raucous intellectual youth culture of the capital, Saint Petersburg. In 1820 he published his first long poem, Ruslan and Lyudmila, amidst much controversy about its subject and style. HP Pavilion dv7-3125eo CPU Fan
Pushkin gradually became committed to social reform and emerged as a spokesman for literary radicals. This angered the government, and led to his transfer from the capital (1820). He went to the Caucasus and to the Crimea, then to Kamenka and Chişinău, where he became a Freemason.
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He was inspired by the Greek Revolution and when the war against the Ottoman Turks broke out he kept a diary recording the events of the great national uprising.
He stayed in Chişinău until 1823 and wrote two Romantic poems which brought him wide acclaim; The Captive of the Caucasus and The Fountain of Bakhchisaray. IHP 606013-001 CPU Fan
n 1823 Pushkin moved to Odessa, where he again clashed with the government, which sent him into exile on his mother's rural estate of Mikhailovskoe (near Pskov) from 1824 to 1826.[16]
In Mikhailovskoe, Pushkin wrote nostalgic love poems which had been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, wife of Malorossia'sGeneral-Governor.[17] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E120 Keyboard
Then Pushkin continued work on his verse-novel Eugene Onegin.
In Mikhailovskoe, in 1825, Pushkin wrote the poem To*** (I keep in mind that magic moment...). It is generally believed that he dedicated this poem to Anna Kern, but there are other opinions. Poet Mikhail Dudin believes that the poem has been dedicated to the serf Olga Kalashnikova.[18] IBM 42T3671 Keyboard
Pushkinist Kira Victorova believes that the poem has been dedicated to the Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna.[19] Vadim Nikolayev, argues that the idea about the Empress is marginal and refuses to discuss it, while trying to prove that poem had been dedicated to Tatyana Larina, the heroine of Eugene Onegin[18] HP 519265-001 Keyboard
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Authorities allowed Pushkin to visit Tsar Nicholas I to petition for his release, which he obtained. Insurgents however, in theDecembrist Uprising (1825) in Saint Petersburg, had kept some of Pushkin's earlier political poems, and he quickly found himself under the strict control of government censors, unable to travel or publish at will. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Keyboard
During that same year (1825), Pushkin also wrote what would become his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov, while at his mother's estate. He could not however, gain permission to publish it until five years later. The original and uncensored version of the drama was not staged until 2007. ACER TravelMate 6292 Keyboard
Around 1825-1829 he met and befriended the Polish poet, Adam Mickiewicz, during exile in central Russia.[20] 1829 he travelled through the Caucasus to Erzurum to visit friends fighting in the Russian army during Russo-Turkish War (1828–29).[21] TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s1196 Keyboard
Around 1828, Pushkin met Natalya Goncharova, then 16 years old and one of the most talked-about beauties of Moscow. After much hesitation, Natalya accepted a proposal of marriage from Pushkin in April 1830, but not before she received assurances that the tsarist government had no intentions to persecute the libertarian poet. DELL NSK-D8001 Keyboard
Later, Pushkin and his wife Natalya Goncharova, became regulars of court society. They officially became engaged on 6 May 1830, and sent out wedding invitations. Due to an outbreak of cholera and other circumstances, the wedding was delayed for a year. SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/R Keyboard
The ceremony took place on 18 February 1831 (Old Style) in the Great Ascension Church on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow. When the Tsar gave Pushkin the lowest court title, the poet became enraged, HP Pavilion dv6-3045eo Keyboard
feeling that the Tsar intended to humiliate him by implying that Pushkin was being admitted to court not on his own merits but solely so that his wife, who had many admirers including the Tsar himself, could properly attend court balls. Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 Keyboard
In the year 1831, during the period of Pushkin's growing literary influence, he met one of Russia's other great early writers,Nikolai Gogol. After reading Gogol's 1831–1832 volume of short stories Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka, Pushkin supported him and would feature some of Gogol's most famous short stories in the magazine The Contemporary, which he founded in 1836. DELL 0PVDG3 Keyboard
By 1837, Pushkin was falling into greater and greater debt and faced scandalous rumors that his wife had embarked on a love affair. In response, the poet challenged Natalya's alleged lover, her brother in-law Georges d'Anthès, to a duel which left both men injured. Shot through the spleen, Pushkin died two days later. His last home is now a museum. TOSHIBA PK130260100 Keyboard
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The Tsarist administration, fearing a political demonstration at his funeral, had it moved to a smaller location and restricted attendance to close relatives and friends.[citation needed] The poet's body was taken secretly at midnight and buried on his mother's estate. ACER Aspire 2920-5A2G25Mi Keyboard
Critics consider many of his works masterpieces, such as the poem The Bronze Horseman and the drama The Stone Guest, a tale of the fall of Don Juan. His poetic short drama "Mozart and Salieri" was the inspiration for Peter Shaffer's Amadeus. Pushkin himself preferred his verse novel Eugene Onegin, which he wrote over the course of his life and which, ACER AEZU2R00010 Keyboard
starting a tradition of great Russian novels, follows a few central characters but varies widely in tone and focus.
"Onegin" is a work of such complexity that, while only about a hundred pages long, translator Vladimir Nabokov needed two full volumes of material to fully render its meaning in English. Because of this difficulty in translation, Pushkin's verse remains largely unknown to English readers. Even so, Pushkin has profoundly influenced western writers like Henry James.[23] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-215DX Keyboard
Pushkin's works also provided fertile ground for Russian composers. Glinka's Ruslan and Lyudmila is the earliest important Pushkin-inspired opera, and a landmark in the tradition of Russian music. Tchaikovsky's operas Eugene Onegin (1879) and The Queen of Spades (1890) became perhaps better known outside of Russia than Pushkin's own works of the same name. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4050 Keyboard
Mussorgsky's monumental Boris Godunov (two versions, 1868-9 and 1871-2) ranks as one of the very finest and most original of Russian operas. Other Russian operas based on Pushkin include Dargomyzhsky's Rusalka and The Stone Guest; Rimsky-Korsakov's Mozart and Salieri, Tale of Tsar Saltan, and The Golden Cockerel; HP 519265-001 Keyboard
Cui's Prisoner of the Caucasus, Feast in Time of Plague, and The Captain's Daughter; Tchaikovsky's Mazeppa; Rachmaninov's one-act operas Aleko (based on The Gypsies) and The Miserly Knight; Stravinsky's Mavra, and Nápravník's Dubrovsky. HP G42-415DX Keyboard
Additionally, ballets and cantatas, as well as innumerable songs have been set to Pushkin's verse (including even his French-language poems, in Isabelle Aboulker's song cycle "Caprice étrange"). Suppé, Leoncavallo and Malipiero,have also based operas on his works.[24] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Keyboard
The Desire of Glory, which has been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, was set to music by David Tukhmanov (Vitold Petrovsky — The Desire of Glory onYouTube), as well as Keep Me, Mine Talisman, — by Alexander Barykin (Alexander Barykin — Keep Me, Mine Talisman on YouTube) and later by Tukhmanov. HP Mini 210-1109TU Keyboard
Pushkin is usually credited with developing Russian literature. Not only is he seen as having originated the highly nuanced level of language which characterizes Russian literature after him, but he is also credited with substantially augmenting the Russian lexicon. Where he found gaps in the Russian vocabulary, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315Z Keyboard
he devised calques. His rich vocabulary and highly sensitive style are the foundation for modern Russian literature. His talent set up new records for development of the Russian language and culture. He became the father of Russian literature in the 19th century, marking the highest achievements of 18th century and the beginning of literary process of the 19th century. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Keyboard
Alexander Pushkin introduced Russia to all the European literary genres as well as a great number of West European writers. He brought natural speech and foreign influences to create modern poetic Russian. HP AEUT5U00010 Keyboard
Though his life was brief, he left examples of nearly every literary genre of his day: lyric poetry, narrative poetry, the novel, the short story, the drama, the critical essay, and even the personal letter. HP Pavilion G6-1227TU Keyboard
Pushkin's work as a journalist marked the birth of Russian magazine culture which included him devising and contributing heavily to one of the most influential literary magazines of the 19th century, the Sovremennik (The Contemporary, or Современник). HP Mini 110-3004tu Keyboard
Pushkin inspired the folk tales and genre pieces of other authors: Leskov, Esenin, and Gorky. His use of Russian language formed the basis of the style of novelists Ivan Turgenev, Ivan Goncharov, and Leo Tolstoy, as well as that of subsequent lyric poets such as Mikhail Lermontov. SONY V072078BS1 Keyboard
Pushkin was analyzed by Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol, his successor and pupil, and the great Russian critic Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky who has also produced the fullest and deepest critical study of Pushkin's work, which still retains much of its relevance. SONY VAIO VGN-NR11M/S Keyboard
In 1986, a book entitled Secret Journal 1836–1837 was published by a Minneapolis publishing house (M.I.P. Company), claiming to be the decoded content of anencrypted private journal kept by Pushkin. Promoted with few details about its contents, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Keyboard
and touted for many years as being 'banned in Russia', it was an erotic novel narrated from Pushkin's perspective. Some mail-order publishers still carry the work under its fictional description. ACER Extensa 5635Z Keyboard
In 2001 it was first published in Moscow by Ladomir Publishing House which created a scandal. In 2006 a bilingual Russian-English edition was published in Russia by Retro Publishing House. Now published in 25 countries. Staged in Paris in 2006.[26] In 2011 new editions were published in France by Belfond,[27] in Spain by Funambulista[28] and in the USA by M.I.P. Company.[26] Lenovo 45N2106 Keyboard
The first academic publication of the Secret Journal and Parapushkinistika in one volume [29] was published in 2013 by M.I.P. Company. Adam Smith (5 June 1723 OS (16 June 1723 NS) – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment,[1] Smith is best known for two classic works: Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E525 Keyboard
The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is cited as the "father of modern economics" and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today.[2] HP Pavilion DV7-3060us Keyboard
Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was one of the first students to benefit from scholarships set up by fellow Scot, John Snell. After graduating, HP Pavilion DV3000 Keyboard
he delivered a successful series of public lectures at the University of Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life, ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Keyboard
he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of classicalfree market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, HP G42-415DX Keyboard
he expounded upon how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Keyboard
In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time.[3] Former UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, it is said, used to carry a copy of the book in her handbag.[4] DELL Inspiron M5030 Keyboard
Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife, in Scotland. His father, also of the same name, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet(senior solicitor), advocate, and prosecutor (Judge Advocate) and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy.[5] In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry, also in Fife. HP 519265-001 Keyboard
His father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow.[6] The date of Smith's baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723,[7] and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth,[5] Lenovo 45N2106 Keyboard
which is unknown. Although few events in Smith's early childhood are known, the Scottish journalist John Rae, Smith's biographer, recorded that Smith was abducted by gypsies at the age of three and released when others went to rescue him.[N 1] Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions.[9] HP 365485-001 Keyboard
He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period"[8]—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, and writing.[9] Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson.[9] DELL Vostro 1014 Keyboard
Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition.[10] FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 Keyboard
Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, which he found intellectually stifling.[11] In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 Keyboard
Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it.[8][12][13] FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Keyboard
According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework."[14] Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library.[15] When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters.[16] GATEWAY V030946FS1 US Keyboard
Near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown.[17] He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.[17][18] SONY 148738121 Keyboard
In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, DELL PVDG3 Keyboard
which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England.[13] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Keyboard
Adam Smith's discontent at Oxford might be in part due to the absence of his beloved teacher in Glasgow, Francis Hutcheson. Hutcheson was well regarded as one of the most prominent lecturers at the University of Glasgow in his day and earned the approbation of students, colleagues, DELL Vostro 3350 Keyboard
and even ordinary residents with the fervor and earnestness of his orations (which he sometimes opened to the public). His lectures endeavored not merely to teach philosophy but to make his students embody that philosophy in their lives, appropriately acquiring the epithet, the preacher of philosophy. Unlike Smith, Hutcheson was not a system builder; DELL Precision M4500 Keyboard
rather it was his magnetic personality and method of lecturing that so influenced his students and caused the greatest of those to reverentially refer to him as "the never to be forgotten Hutcheson" – a title that Smith in all his correspondence used to describe only two people, his good friend David Hume and influential mentor Francis Hutcheson.[19] HP Pavilion dv6-3040sp Keyboard
In 1750, he met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. In their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion, Smith and Hume shared closer intellectual and personal bonds than with other important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.[23] HP Pavilion dv7-6107tx CPU Fan
In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses, and in 1752 Smith was elected a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, having been introduced to the society by Lord Kames. Dell Vostro 3350 CPU Fan
When the head of Moral Philosophy died the next year, Smith took over the position.[22] He worked as an academic for the next thirteen years, which he characterized as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honorable period [of his life]".[24] Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan
Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. Smith defined "mutual sympathy" as the basis of moral sentiments. TOSHIBA Mini NB 300 Series Keyboard
He based his explanation, not on a special "moral sense" as the Third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on mutual sympathy, a term best captured in modern parlance by the twentieth-century concept of empathy, the capacity to recognize feelings that are being experienced by another being. SONY VGN-FE28H Keyboard
Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith became so popular that many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith.[25] DELL Latitude E5500 Keyboard
After the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals.[26] For example, Smith lectured that the cause of increase in national wealth is labor, rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver, which is the basis for mercantilism, the economic theory that dominated Western European economic policies at the time.[25] HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Keyboard
In 1762, the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained an offer from Charles Townshend – who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume – to tutor his stepson, TOSHIBA Equium A100 Series Keyboard
Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith then resigned from his professorship to take the tutoring position, and he subsequently attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students because he resigned in the middle of the term, but his students refused.[27] SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Keyboard
Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Scott, during which time he educated Scott on a variety of subjects – such as proper Polish.[27] He was paid £300 per year (plus expenses) along with a £300 per year pension; roughly twice his former income as a teacher.[27] Smith first travelled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for one and a half years.[27] DELL Vostro 3350 Keyboard
According to his own account, he found Toulouse to be somewhat boring, having written to Hume that he "had begun to write a book to pass away the time".[27] After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva, where Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire.[28] ACER Aspire 7736ZG Keyboard
From Geneva, the party moved to Paris. Here Smith came to know several great intellectual leaders of the time; invariably having an effect on his future works. This list included: Benjamin Franklin,[29] Turgot, Jean D'Alembert, André Morellet, Helvétius, and, notably, François Quesnay, the head of the Physiocratic school.[30] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Keyboard
So impressed with his ideas[31] Smith considered dedicating The Wealth of Nations to him – had Quesnay not died beforehand.[32] Physiocrats were opposed to mercantilism, the dominating economic theory of the time. Illustrated in their motto Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même! (Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!). HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Keyboard
They were also known to have declared that only agricultural activity produced real wealth; merchants and industrialists (manufacturers) did not.[29] This however, did not represent their true school of thought, but was a mere "smoke screen" manufactured to hide their actual criticisms of the nobility and church; arguing that they made up the only real clients of merchants.[33] HP 517865-031 Keyboard
The wealth of France was virtually destroyed by Louis XIV and Louis XV to ruinous wars,[34] by aiding the American insurgents against the British, and perhaps most destructive (in terms of public perceptions) was what was seen as the excessive consumption of goods and services deemed to have no economic contribution – unproductive labour. Lenovo 0A62039 Keyboard
Assuming that nobility and church are essentially detractors from economic growth, the feudal system of agriculture in France was the only sector important to maintain the wealth of the nation. Given that the English economy of the day yielded an income distribution that stood in contrast to that which existed in France, DELL Vostro A860 Keyboard
Smith concluded that the teachings and beliefs of Physiocrats were, "with all [their] imperfections [perhaps], the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy".[35] Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX CPU Fan
The distinction between productive versus unproductive labour – the physiocratic classe steril – was a predominant issue in the development and understanding of what would become classical economic theory. IBM 41W5269 CPU Fan
In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter.[29] Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus.[36] There he befriended Henry Moyes, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. As well as teaching Moyes, HP Pavilion dv6-2057eo CPU Fan
Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and Thomas Reid in the young man's education.[37] In May 1773, Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London,[38] and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775.[39] The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out its first edition in only six months.[40] HP Pavilion dv7-1135nr CPU Fan
In 1778, Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Panmure House in Edinburgh's Canongate.[41]Five years later, as a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh when it received its royal charter, he automatically became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,[42] IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 CPU Fan
and from 1787 to 1789 he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow.[43] He died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness and was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard.[44] On his death bed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.[45] Toshiba Satellite A100-02M CPU Fan
Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, and the pioneering geologist James Hutton.[46] Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication.[47] ACER Aspire 5730Z Series CPU Fan
He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects.[46]
Smith's library went by his will to David Douglas, Toshiba Satellite P300-1FN CPU Fan
Lord Reston (son of his cousin Colonel Robert Douglas of Strathendry, Fife), who lived with Smith. It was eventually divided between his two surviving children, Cecilia Margaret (Mrs. Cunningham) and David Anne (Mrs. Bannerman). On the death of her husband, the Rev. W. B. Cunningham of Prestonpans in 1878, Mrs. Cunningham sold some of the books. HP G42-415DX CPU Fan
The remainder passed to her son, Professor Robert Oliver Cunningham of Queen's College, Belfast, who presented a part to the library of Queen's College. After his death the remaining books were sold. On the death of Mrs. Bannerman in 1879 her portion of the library went intact to the New College (of the Free Church), Edinburgh. HP Pavilion dv7-4177nr CPU Fan
Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death at his request.[47] He never married,[49] and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before his own death.[50] HP 580718-001 CPU Fan
ACER Aspire One A110-1834 CPU Fan
Smith was described by several of his contemporaries and biographers as comically absent-minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait, and a smile of "inexpressible benignity".[51] He was known to talk to himself,[45] a habit that began during his childhood when he would smile in rapt conversation with invisible companions.[52] Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan
He also had occasional spells of imaginary illness,[45] and he is reported to have had books and papers placed in tall stacks in his study.[52] According to one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory, and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he needed help to escape.[53] SONY Vaio VPC-EB4X1E/BQ CPU Fan
He is also said to have put bread and butter into a teapot, drunk the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he ever had. According to another account, Smith distractedly went out walking in his nightgown and ended up 15 miles (24 km) outside of town, before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.[52][53] HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
James Boswell who was a student of Smith's at Glasgow University, and later knew him at the Literary Club, says that Smith thought that speaking about his ideas in conversation might reduce the sale of his books, and so his conversation was unimpressive. According to Boswell, he once told Sir Joshua Reynolds that 'he made it a rule when in company never to talk of what he understood'.[54] HP Pavilion tx2510us CPU Fan
Smith, who is reported to have been an odd-looking fellow, has been described as someone who "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment".[13] Smith is said to have acknowledged his looks at one point, saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books."[13] ACER Aspire 7112WSMi CPU Fan
Smith rarely sat for portraits,[55] so almost all depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory. The best-known portraits of Smith are the profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay.[56] The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely on Tassie's medallion.[57] Toshiba GDM610000277 CPU Fan
There has been considerable scholarly debate about the nature of Smith's religious views. Smith's father had shown a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland.[58] The fact that Adam Smith received the Snell Exhibition suggests that he may have gone to Oxford with the intention of pursuing a career in the Church of England.[59] ASUS F6VE Keyboard
Anglo-American economist Ronald Coase has challenged the view that Smith was a deist, based on the fact that Smith's writings never explicitly invoke God as an explanation of the harmonies of the natural or the human worlds.[60] According to Coase, DELL NSK-DB301 Keyboard
though Smith does sometimes refer to the "Great Architect of the Universe", later scholars such as Jacob Viner have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God",[61] HP Pavilion dv6-3057tx Keyboard
a belief for which Coase finds little evidence in passages such as the one in the Wealth of Nations in which Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature", such as "the generation, the life, growth and dissolution of plants and animals", DELL Vostro PP38L Keyboard
has led men to "enquire into their causes", and that "superstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods. Philosophy afterwards endeavoured to account for them, from more familiar causes, or from such as mankind were better acquainted with than the agency of the gods".[61] HP Pavilion DV7-3057nr Keyboard
Some other authors argue that Smith's social and economic philosophy is inherently theological and that his entire model of social order is logically dependent on the notion of God's action in nature.[62] TOSHIBA Satellite l20-135 Keyboard
Smith was also a close friend and later the executor of David Hume, who was commonly characterized in his own time as an atheist.[63] The publication in 1777 of Smith's letter to William Strahan, in which he described Hume's courage in the face of death in spite his irreligiosity, attracted considerable controversy.[64] Toshiba Satellite L30-10X CPU Fan
In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He continued making extensive revisions to the book, up until his death.[N 2] AlthoughThe Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, it is believed that Smith himself considered The Theory of Moral Sentiments to be a superior work.[66] Toshiba Satellite A300-21H CPU Fan
In the work, Smith critically examines the moral thinking of his time, and suggests that conscience arises from social relationships.[67] His goal in writing the work was to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements, SONY Vaio VGN-FS415M CPU Fan
in spite of man's natural inclinations towards self-interest. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy, in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and the morality of their own behavior.[68] HP Pavilion dv6-3109ca CPU Fan
Scholars have traditionally perceived a conflict between The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations; the former emphasizes sympathy for others, while the latter focuses on the role of self-interest.[69] In recent years, however, some scholars[70][71][72] of Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists.[73] HP Pavilion dv9547cl CPU Fan
They claim that in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathize with them. Rather than viewing The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations as presenting incompatible views of human nature, HP G42-380LA CPU Fan
some Smith scholars regard the works as emphasizing different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. Furthermore, Ekelund and Hebert argue that self-interest is present Toshiba Satellite P300 CPU Fan
in both works and that "in the former, sympathy is the moral faculty that holds self-interest in check, whereas in the latter, competition is the economic faculty that restrains self-interest."[74] IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 CPU Fan
There is a fundamental disagreement between classical and neoclassical economists about the central message of Smith's most influential work: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Neoclassical economists emphasise Smith'sinvisible hand,[75] HP Pavilion dv7-4283cl CPU Fan
a concept mentioned in the middle of his work – Book IV, Chapter II – and classical economists believe that Smith stated his programme for promoting the "wealth of nations" in the first sentences. HP COMPAQ 2510P Series CPU Fan
Smith used the term "the invisible hand" in "History of Astronomy"[76] referring to "the invisible hand of Jupiter" and twice – each time with a different meaning – the term "an invisible hand": in The Theory of Moral Sentiments[77] (1759) HP Pavilion dv6-3126ea CPU Fan
and in The Wealth of Nations[78] (1776). This last statement about "an invisible hand" has been interpreted as "the invisible hand" in numerous ways. It is therefore important to read the original: TOSHIBA Satellite M640-BT2N23 Keyboard
As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, DELL NSK-D8001 Keyboard
indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, SONY VGN-FE41S Keyboard
as in many other eases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. TOSHIBA 6037B0028502 Keyboard
I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it. DELL Inspiron 1564 Keyboard
Those who regard that statement as Smith's central message also quote frequently Smith's dictum:[79]
It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages. HP Pavilion DV7-2173cl Keyboard
Smith's statement about the benefits of "an invisible hand" is certainly meant to answer[citation needed] Mandeville's contention that "Private Vices ... may be turned into Public Benefits".[80] It shows Smith's belief that when an individual pursues his self-interest, he indirectly promotes the good of society. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 Keyboard
Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, ACER Aspire 1690 Keyboard
he was wary of businessmen and warned of their "conspiracy against the public or in some other contrivance to raise prices".[81] Again and again, Smith warned of the collusive nature of business interests, which may form cabals or monopolies, HP 519265-001 Keyboard
fixing the highest price "which can be squeezed out of the buyers".[82] Smith also warned that a business-dominated political system would allow a conspiracy of businesses and industry against consumers, with the former scheming to influence politics and legislation. FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 Keyboard
Smith states that the interest of manufacturers and merchants "...in any particular branch of trade or manufactures, is always in some respects different from, and even opposite to, that of the public... HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl Keyboard
The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention."[83] FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Keyboard
The neoclassical interest in Smith's statement about "an invisible hand" originates in the possibility to see it as a precursor ofneoclassical economics and its General Equilibrium concept. Samuelson's "Economics" refers 6 times to Smith's "invisible hand". Compaq Presario CQ62-358TU Keyboard
To emphasize this relation, Samuelson[84] quotes Smith's "invisible hand" statement putting "general interest" where Smith wrote "public interest". Samuelson[85] concluded: "Smith was unable to prove the essence of his invisible-hand doctrine. Indeed, until the 1940s no one knew how to prove, even to state properly, the kernel of truth in this proposition about perfectly competitive market." TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 Keyboard
Very differently, classical economists see in Smith's first sentences his programme to promote "The Wealth of Nations". Taking up the physiocratical concept of the economy as a circular process means that to have growth the inputs of period2 must excel the inputs of period1. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Keyboard
Therefore the outputs of period1 not used or usable as input of period2 are regarded as unproductive labour as they do not contribute to growth. This is what Smith had learned in France with Quesnay. HP Pavilion DV6-1350us Keyboard
To this French insight that unproductive labour should be pushed back to use more labour productively, Smith added his own proposal, that productive labour should be made even more productive by deepening the division of labour. Deepening the division of labour means under competition lower prices and thereby extended markets. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Keyboard
Extended markets and increased production lead to a new step of reorganising production and inventing new ways of producing which again lower prices, etc., etc.. Smith's central message is therefore that under dynamic competition a growth machine secures "The Wealth of Nations". It predicted England's evolution as the workshop of the World, underselling all its competitors. The opening sentences of the "Wealth of Nations" summarize this policy: HP Pavilion DV7-2177cl Keyboard
Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, SONY VAIO VPC-F12 Keyboard
probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Smith. Other works, including some published posthumously, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 Keyboard
include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms(1763) (first published in 1896); and Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795).[88] The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, HP Pavilion dv6-3007tu Keyboard
Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.[89] SONY VAIO VGN-NW35E/W Keyboard
In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time.[3]Former UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, it is said, used to carry a copy of the book in her handbag.[90] HP G62-458TX CPU FAN
In light of the arguments put forward by Smith and other economic theorists in Britain, academic belief in mercantalism began to decline in England in the late 18th century. During the Industrial Revolution, Britain embraced free trade and Smith's laissez-faire economics, and via the British Empire, HP G62-459TU CPU FAN
used its power to spread a broadly liberal economic model around the world, characterized by open markets, and relatively barrier free domestic and international trade.[91]
George Stigler attributes to Smith "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics". It is that, under competition, owners of resources (for example labor, HP G62-459TX CPU FAN
land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in equilibrium for all uses, adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training, trust, hardship, and unemployment.[92] HP G62-460SD CPU FAN
Paul Samuelson finds in Smith's pluralist use of supply and demand as applied to wages, rents, profit a valid and valuable anticipation of the general equilibrium modeling of Walras a century later. HP G62-460SJ CPU FAN
Smith's allowance for wage increases in the short and intermediate term from capital accumulation and invention added a realism missed later by Malthus, Ricardo, and Karl Marx in their propounding a rigid subsistence–wage theory of labour supply.[93] HP G62-460SO CPU FAN
On the other hand, Joseph Schumpeter dismissed Smith's contributions as unoriginal, saying "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, HP G62-460SS CPU FAN
had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along."[94] HP G62-460ST CPU FAN
Classical economists presented competing theories of those of Smith, termed the "labour theory of value". Later Marxian economics descending from classical economics also use Smith's labour theories, in part. HP G62-454SF CPU FAN
The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Capital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital.[95][96] HP G62-454EF CPU FAN
The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern contention of neoclassical economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing. HP G62-454TU CPU FAN
The body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or "marginalism" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier, broader term "political economy" used by Smith.[97][98] HP G62-454TX CPU FAN
This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences.[99] Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. HP G62-455SX CPU FAN
It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.[100] HP G62-455TX CPU FAN
HP G62-456TU CPU FAN
Radishchev was born into a minor noble family on an estate just outside of Moscow. His father, Nicholas Afanasevich Radischev, was a prominent landowner in Moscow who was known for humanely treating his 3000 plus serfs. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Keyboard
Until he was 8 years old he lived on his father's estate in Verkhni Oblyazovo, Saratov Oblast (today in Penza Oblast), one hundred miles west of the Volga river with a nurse and tutor, then was sent to live with a relative in Moscow, where he was allowed to spend time at the newly established Moscow University. SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Keyboard
In 1765, his family connections provided him with an opportunity to serve as a page in Catherine's court, which he nonetheless regarded with suspicion for its ‘contempt for the Orthodox faith, and a desire to deliver the homeland into foreign (German) hands'.[1] ACER TravelMate 2800 Series Keyboard
Because of his exceptional academic promise, Radishchev was chosen of one of a dozen young students to be sent abroad to acquire Western learning. For several years he studied at the University of Leipzig. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Keyboard
· His foreign education influenced his approach to Russian society, and upon his return he hoped to incorporate Enlightenment philosophies such as natural law and the social contract to Russian conditions. Even as he served as a Titular Councillor, drafting legal protocols, in Catherine’s Civil Service, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420 Keyboard
he lauded revolutionaries like George Washington and praised the early stages of the French Revolution, and found himself enamored of the Russian Freemason, Nicholas Ivanovich Novikov, whose publication “The Drone” offered the first public critiques of the government, particularly with regards to serfdom.[2] Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge S420 Keyboard
His sharp satire and indignation inspired Radischev's most famous work - A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow - in which he emulates Novikov’s harsh and passionate style. He too was especially critical of serfdom and the limits to personal freedom imposed by the autocracy. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad Edge E420S Keyboard
Catherine the Great read the work, viewed Radishchev's calls for reform as evidence of Jacobin-style radicalism, and ordered copies of the text confiscated and destroyed. Out of the 650 copies originally printed, only 17 survived to be reprinted in England fifty years later.[3] In 1790, Radischev was arrested and condemned to death. Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420 Keyboard
He humbly begged forgiveness of Catherine, publicly disowning his book and his sentence was commuted to exile to Ilimsk in Siberia. En route, the writer was treated like a common convict, shackled at the ankles and forced to endure the Russian cold from which he eventually fell ill. His friend, Count Alexander Vorontzov, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420i Keyboard
who held sway with Catherine, interceded and managed to secure Radischev more appropriate accommodations, allowing him to return to Moscow to recover and restart his journey with dignity and comfort.[4] Beginning in October, 1790, Radischev’s two-year trip through Siberia took him through Siberia, stopping the towns of Ekaterinberg, Lenovo IBM ThinkPad T420S Keyboard
Tobolsk, and Irkutsk before reaching the small town of Ilimsk in 1792. Along the way, he began writing a biography of Yermak, the Cossack conqueror of Siberia, and pursuing an interest in geology and nature. Settling in Ilimsk for five years with his second wife, Elizabeth Vasilievna Rubanovsky, and his two children, Radischev, SONY VGN-FE11M Keyboard
as the only educated man in the area, became the local doctor and saved several lives. He also wrote a long treatise, On Man, His Mortality, His Immortality, revered as one of the few great philosophical works of Russia.[5] In it, he addresses man’s belief in the afterlife, the corporality of the soul, and the faults of Materialism. ACER TravelMate 3232WXMi Keyboard
Radishchev was freed by Catherine's successor Tsar Paul, and attempted again to push for reforms in Russia's government. Under the reign of Alexander I, Radishchev was briefly employed to help revise Russian law, a realization of his lifelong dream. SONY VAIO VGN-CR42S Keyboard
Unfortunately, his tenure in this administrative body was short and unsuccessful. In 1802 a despondent Radishchev - possibly threatened with another Siberian exile - committed suicide by drinking poison. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315Z Keyboard
As a true student of the Enlightenment, Radischev held views that favored the freedom of the individual, Humanism, and patriotism. These values are best summed up by “equality of all classes before the law, abolition of the Table of Ranks, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Keyboard
trial by jury, religious toleration, freedom of the press, emancipation of manorial serfs, habeas corpus, and freedom of trade”.[7] Upon his return from Leipzig in 1771, Radischev saw with fresh eyes the stark contrast between life under liberal Western states like England and Switzerland and that under Russia’s autocracy. Echoing the sentiments of Catherine herself, HP 533549-001 Keyboard
he advocated education for all classes, a system he had the fortune to witness in a school in Irkutsk.[8] A more educated populace would provide the foundation for an eventual republican or parliamentary system. Of all of Russia’s social ills, Radischev especially despised the inequality and prolongation of serfdom, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4050 Keyboard
rooted in a traditional social system that enforced a strict hierarchy and permitted abuses and exploitation. Ironically, under Catherine’s enlightened reign, serfdom was intensified and spread to newly conquered territories.[9] While in Siberia, Radischev’s economic thought developed, DELL Vostro PP37L Keyboard
not only in terms of decreasing dependence on serfdom but denouncing international trade. Though influenced by Adam Smith, Radischev maintained protectionist views, condemning unnecessary international trade and proposing stronger domestic production. In the debate over Sino-Russian trade relations, he believed Russia’s own resources were enough to support it.[10] ACER Aspire 2920Z Keyboard
Criticizing the history of arbitrary rule in Russia, Radischev called autocracy the system of governance "most contrary to human nature".[11] Under this system, government was better positioned to breach its social contract with the governed, creating an unjust and oppressed society. Lenovo Thinkpad T420 Keyboard
He extends this system to master-serf relations as well, noting that seeking unlimited power is a natural human vice. Interestingly, Radischev does not sweepingly criticize all autocrats, but only tyrants, praising, in fact, Lycurgis, the philosopher king of Sparta who promoted equality and civil rights.[12] Radischev, however, did not believe in, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Keyboard
HP G72-b60US Keyboard
or desire, bloody revolution and instead hoped for a reforming autocrat who would abolish serfdom and "maintain equality in society, protect the widow and the orphan and save the innocent from harm".[13] As a member of the ruling class, he didn’t seek to overturn autocracy but to persuade his countrymen and superiors to give up some of their vested power. SAMSUNG N150 Keyboard
In no way an idealist, the writer acknowledged that “where there was more enlightenment, where there was more social life, there was more corruption, so inseparable are good and evil on the earth.”[14] HP G62-224CA Keyboard
Radischev's religious and philosophical views were incredibly liberal for his time. Denying the belief that sensory experience is primary, Radischev, in On Man, His Mortality, His Immortality, speaks in favor of man's higher virtues as the main elements in complex human thought. DELL Precision M4500 Keyboard
He believed that man’s hereditary faculties have as much influence on his development as the external environment. He also points out, however, that there are common, innate traits that bind all people, particularly the belief in a higher power. The belief in immortality remains particularly potent for him, DELL Vostro 1014 Keyboard
both as a factor of faith and as a solace amidst the difficulties of life.
A few more narrowly specialized Moscow colleges, including the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology and the Moscow State Institute of International Relations were split off from MSU at one time or another and have since established strong reputations of their own, arguably even surpassing their parent in terms of prestige and quality of education. HP Pavilion dm3-1020CA Keyboard
The main Building in winter
The university has well-established contacts with the most distinguished universities in the world, exchanging students and lecturers with the leading international institutions of higher education. It houses the UNESCO International Demography Courses, the UNESCO Hydrology Courses, the International Biotechnology Center, HP 597635-001 Keyboard
the International LASER Center, courses or seminars on Russian as a foreign language. In 1991 the French University College, the Russian-American University and the Institute of German Science and Culture were opened. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Keyboard
The university has awarded honorary degrees to more than 60 scientists, statesmen and politicians from abroad. Many prominent university scholars and scientists in return hold honorary degrees from foreign academies and universities. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Keyboard
Moscow State University is one of Russia's most prestigious institutions of higher learning, and has demanding entry requirements for prospective students. Nonetheless, it performs inconsistently in international rankings. Lenovo 45N2106 Keyboard
While it was placed 77th overall[1] by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and 112th[2] by QS World University Rankings, it was not included among the top 200 universities[3] by recent Times Higher World University Rankings and came in at 296th (based on the full THE World University Rankings in their iPhone application). HP AEUT5U00010 Keyboard
On a highly cited and consistent ranking, Moscow State University ranked 43rd in 2008, 44th in 2009–2011, and 45th among 300 Best World Universities in 2012 compiled by Human Resources & Labor Review (HRLR) on Measurements of World's Top 300 Universities Graduates' Performance.[4] Despite its large number of faculties, TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Keyboard
Moscow State University seems to be strong mostly in natural sciences and mathematics (currently placed between 38th[2] and 75th[5] in the world) but considerably weaker in other disciplines. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E525 Keyboard
Despite the fact that it is still the highest ranked Russian university according to the three international rankings mentioned above (with the nearest Russian competitor being Saint Petersburg State University that scored 300–400th), SONY VAIO VGN-FS295XP Keyboard
the university was consistently placed outside top 5 nationally in 2010–2011 by Forbes[6] and Ria Novosti / HSE.,[7]with both ratings based on data set collected by GU VSHE from Russian Unified State Exam scores averaged per all students and faculties of university. IBM 42T3671 Keyboard
HP 519265-001 Keyboard
The establishment of the university was at the initiative[clarification needed] of Ivan Shuvalov andMikhail Lomonosov. Russian Empress Elizabeth decreed its creation on January 25 [O.S. January 12] 1755. The first lectures were held on April 26. January 25 is still celebrated as Students' Day in Russia. HP Pavilion dv7-6187cl CPU Fan
St. Petersburg State University and Moscow State University have a friendly argument about which is actually Russia's oldest. While Moscow State University was established in 1755, its St. Toshiba Satellite A205-S5831 CPU Fan
Originally located in the Principal Medicine Store on Red Square, the university was transferred byCatherine the Great to a Neoclassical building on the other side of Mokhovaya Street. This main building was constructed between 1782 and 1793 in the Neo-Palladian style, designed by Matvei Kazakov, and rebuilt after the 1812 Fire of Moscow by Domenico Giliardi. IBM MCF-217PAM05 CPU Fan
In the 18th century, the university had three departments: philosophy, medicine, and law. A preparatory college was affiliated with the university before it was abolished in 1812. In 1779, Mikhail Kheraskov founded a boarding school for noblemen (Благородный APPLE 661-4952 CPU Fan
пансион), which was transformed into a gymnasium for the Russian nobility in 1830. The university press, run by Nikolay Novikov in the 1780s, published the most popular newspaper in Imperial Russia — Moskovskie Vedomosti. Dell Vostro 3500 CPU Fan
In 1804, medical education was split into clinical (therapy), surgical, and obstetrics faculties. In 1884–1897, the Department of Medicine, supported by private donations, City Hall, and the national government, built an extensive, Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX CPU Fan
1.6 kilometer long, state-of-the-art medical campus in Devichye Pole, between the Garden Ring and Novodevichy Convent. It was designed by Konstantin Bykovsky, with university doctors like Nikolay Sklifosovskiy and Fyodor Erismann acting as consultants. The campus, and medical education in general, were separated from the university in 1918. HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
HP Pavilion dv9230us CPU Fan
Devichye Pole is now operated by the independent Moscow Medical Academy and various other state and private institutions.
The roots of student unrest reach deep into the 1800s. In 1905, a social-democratic organization was created at the university calling for the tsar to be overthrown and for Russia to be turned into a republic. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 Series CPU Fan
The Tsarist government repeatedly threatened to close the university. In 1911, in a protest over the introduction of troops onto the campus and mistreatment of certain professors, 130 scientists and professors resigned en masse, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
including prominent figures such asNikolay Dimitrievich Zelinskiy, Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev, and Sergei Alekseevich Chaplygin. Thousands of students were also expelled.
After the October Revolution in 1917, the school began admitting proletariat and peasant children. In 1919, tuition fees were abolished, IBM ThinkPad T60 2637 CPU Fan
and a preparatory facility was established to help working class children prepare for entrance exams. Political repression in the 1930s and 1950s severely limited intellectual freedoms. Soviet scholars had virtually no contact with their colleagues abroad. Certain branches of science (e.g., genetics) were condemned for alleged "APPLE MG62090V1-Q020-S99 CPU Fan
anti-Communist ideologies," and a number of scientists and scholars were sentenced to life imprisonment. During the implementation of Joseph Stalin's First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932), parts of the university were constructed by prisoners of the Gulag. As stated above, the intelligensia would later be ironically mocked, repressed, and imprisoned by Stalin. HP 535766-001 CPU Fan
Many Moscow State University professors, students, and staff were evacuated during the war first to Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, then to Sverdlovsk, returning to Moscow in 1943, after the German troops were defeated near the capital. During the war, over 3,000 specialists were trained at the university. HP Envy 17-1090eo CPU Fan
University scientists continued their research, and their contributions to applied science allowed improvements in aircraft development, the accuracy of artillery fire, etc. Also, new explosives were invented, a study of uranium was carried out, Dell Vostro 3350 CPU Fan
a blood coagulant was introduced into medical practice, university geologists discovered tungsten and new oil deposits in Central Asia, and university geographers supplied the Red Army with maps and charts. University lawyers made their contribution during the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials. TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 Keyboard
During the post-war period, Moscow State University's contribution to the restoration and further development of the country was recognized. There was a five-fold increase in state funding, and a new university campus was built on Vorobievy Gory (Sparrow Hills), where all the lecture halls and laboratories had the most modern equipment available. TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Keyboard
After 1991, nine new faculties were established. In 1992, the university was granted a unique status: it is funded directly from the state budget (bypassing the Ministry of Education), which provides a significant level of independence. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Keyboard
On September 6, 1997, the entire front of the university was used as the backdrop for a concert by French electronic musician Jean Michel Jarre, who had been specially invited to perform there by the mayor of the city. The entire front of the building was used as a giant projection screen, while fireworks, lasers, HP COMPAQ KSB05105HA CPU Fan
and searchlights were all launched from various points around the building. The stage was directly in front of the building, and the concert, titled "The Road To The 21st Century" in Russia, but renamed "Oxygen In Moscow" for worldwide video/DVD release, attracted a world record crowd of 3.5 million people. HP 538340-001 CPU Fan
On March 19, 2008, Russia's most powerful supercomputer to date, the SKIF MSU (Russian: СКИФ МГУ; skif is Russian for "scythian") was launched at the university. Its peak performance is 60 TFLOPS and LINPACK is 47.170 TFLOPS, making it the fastest supercomputer in the CIS.[15][16][17] HP Pavilion dv6-2150us CPU Fan
According to Federal Law N259-FZ, adopted on 10th November 2009 the university was granted a specific legal framework for its activities within the national educational context. DELL MD538 CPU Fan
The law recognizes the uniqueness of the university as a leading classical university and entitles it to wider academic freedom. The law provides university with the possibility of setting its own educational standards and entry requirements. HP Pavilion dv7-6187cl CPU Fan
Since 1953, most of the faculties have been situated on Sparrow Hills, in the southwest of Moscow, 5km from the city center. The main building was designed by architect Lev Vladimirovich Rudnev. In the post-war era, Joseph Stalin ordered seven huge tiered neoclassic towers to be built around the city. HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
It was built using Gulagor labour, as were many of Stalin's Great Construction Projects in Russia.[18] Located on Moscow's outskirts at the time of its construction, the location of the main building is now about half-way between the center of Moscow at the Kremlin and the city's current limits. HP Pavilion dv7-3065dx CPU Fan
The Journalism Department now occupies the university's original location in downtown Moscow across from the Manezh, steps from the Kremlin and other government buildings. Indeed, frequent student unrest, including street protests, well pre-dating 1917 may be one reason why Stalin's planners sited the university across the Moscow River, so far away. HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
The MSU main building was the tallest building in the world outside of New York City at the time of its construction, and remained the tallest building in Europe until 1990. The central tower is 240 m tall, 36 stories high, and flanked by four huge wings of student and faculty accommodations. It is said to contain a total of 33 kilometers of corridors and 5,000 rooms. HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
Facilities available inside the building include a concert hall, a theater, a museum, administrative services, a library, a swimming pool, a police station, a post office, a laundry, a hairdresser's salon, several canteens, bank offices and ATMs, shops, cafeterias, SONY VAIO PCG-6L2L CPU Fan
a bomb shelter, etc. Along with the university administration, the Museum of Earth Sciences and four of the main faculties – Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics, the Faculty of Geology, the Faculty of Geography, HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
and the Faculty of Fine and Performing Arts – now reside in the Main building. The star on the top of the tower is large enough to include a small room and a viewing platform; it weighs 12 tons. The building's facades are ornamented with giant clocks, barometers, thermometers, statues, carved wheat sheaves, and Soviet crests. SONY Vaio VPC-EB1S0E/BJ CPU Fan
It stands before a terrace featuring statues of male and female students gazing optimistically and confidently into the future.
While the Sparrow Hills were on the outskirts of the city at the time of the construction of the main building, they are now about halfway from the Kremlin to the city limits. Several other buildings and sports facilities were later added to the campus, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
including the only baseball stadium in Russia. Currently, a new building is under construction for the social sciences faculties, and another new one of vast size has just been built for the library, which is the second-largest in Russia by volume (number of books). The university also has several dormitory buildings in the Southwest of Moscow, outside the campus. SONY Vaio VGN-BX760PS5 CPU Fan
The historical building on Mokhovaya Street now mainly houses the Faculty of Journalism, the Faculty of Psychology, and The Institute of Asian and African Studies. The university includes a number of faculty buildings located near Manege Square in the center of Moscow and a number of campuses abroad in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
The university's main library is one of the largest in Russia. Current estimates suggest that it contains approximately 9,000,000 volumes. The library serves in the area of 55,000 readers per year, using approximately 5,500,000 books. HP Pavilion dv7-3065dx CPU Fan
The university offers classes on its main campus not only in Moscow, but also on campuses in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan. These include the Puschino MSU campus, Podmoskovny MSU campus, Chernomorsky MSU campus and Kazakhstan MSU campus. The Ulyanovsk branch of MSU was reorganized into Ulyanovsk State University in 1996. HP 550 CPU Fan
Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov (Russian: Никола́й Ива́нович Новико́в) (8 May [O.S. 27 April] 1744, Moscow Governorate – 12 August [O.S. 31 July] 1818. Moscow Governorate) was a Russian writer and philanthropist most representative of his country'sEnlightenment. Frequently considered to be the first Russian journalist, he aimed at advancing the cultural and educational level of the Russian public. HP Pavilion dv7-3170ep CPU Fan
Novikov belonged to the first generation of Russians that benefited from the creation of the Moscow University in 1755. He took an active part in the Legislative Assembly of 1767, which sought to produce a new code of laws. Inspired by this kind of freethinking activity, IBM 26R8197 CPU Fan
he took over editing the Moscow Gazette and launched satirical journals, patterned after The Tatler and The Spectator. His attacks on the existing social customs prompted jocund retorts from Catherine the Great, who even set her own journal called Vsyakaya vsyachina to comment on Novikov's articles. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Keyboard
Together with Johann Georg Schwarz, Ivan Lopukhin, and Semyon Gamaleya he brought martinism and rosicrucianism to Russia.[1]By the 1780s, Novikov rose to the highest positions in Russian Freemasonry,[citation needed] which liberally funded his ambitious book-publishing ventures. ASUS F6VE Keyboard
Novikov's press produced a third part of contemporary Russian books and several newspapers. Novikov used his influence for various noble purposes, such as a large-scale project of promoting Shakespeare to Russian public. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Keyboard
When the French Revolution started, Catherine changed her attitude towards the likes of Novikov. His printing-house was confiscated. Three years later, without a formal trial, he was incarcerated in the Shlisselburg Fortress for 15 years. SONY VAIO VGN NR298E Keyboard
Much of his printed material was pulped, including 1,000 copies of Edward Young's The Last Day (1713). Emperor Paul set Novikov free, but the latter was too scared and broken-hearted to resume his journalistic activities. HP Mini 210 Keyboard
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Russian: Алекса́ндр Серге́евич Пу́шкин, tr. Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, IPA: [ɐlʲɪˈksandr sʲɪˈrɡʲejɪvʲɪt͡ɕ ˈpuʂkʲɪn] ( listen); 6 June [O.S. 26 May] 1799 – 10 February [O.S. 29 January] 1837) was a Russian author of the Romantic era[1] who is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet[2][3][4][5] and the founder of modern Russian literature.[6][7] Acer eMachines E732 Keyboard
Pushkin was born into Russian nobility in Moscow. His great-grandfather from his mother's side – Abram Gannibal – was brought over as a slave from Africa and had risen to become an aristocrat.[8] Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen, and was widely recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his graduation from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Keyboard
While under the strict surveillance of the Tsar's political police and unable to publish, Pushkin wrote his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov. His novel in verse, Eugene Onegin, was serialized between 1825 and 1832. TOSHIBA NSK-T4D01 Keyboard
Notoriously touchy about his honour, Pushkin fought as many as twenty-nine duels, and was fatally wounded in such an encounter with Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès. D'Anthès, a French officer serving with the Chevalier Guard Regiment, had been attempting to seduce the poet's wife, Natalya Pushkina. HP 405963-001 Keyboard
Pushkin's father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767–1848), was descended from a distinguished family of the Russian nobility that traced its ancestry back to the 12th century.[9][10]
Pushkin's mother Nadezhda (Nadya) Ossipovna Gannibal (1775–1836) was descended through her paternal grandmother fromGerman and Scandinavian nobility.[11][12] SAMSUNG Q35 Keyboard
She was the daughter of Ossip Abramovich Gannibal (1744–1807) and his wife, Maria Alekseyevna Pushkina (1745–1818).
Ossip Abramovich Gannibal's father, Pushkin's great-grandfather, was Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), a Black African page kidnapped and brought to Russia as a gift for Peter the Great. Abram wrote in a letter to Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great's daughter, HP Pavilion dv6-2133ee Keyboard
that he was from the town of "Lagon". Russian biographers concluded from the beginning that Lagon was in Ethiopia, a nation with Orthodox Christian associations. Vladimir Nabokov, when researching Eugene Onegin, cast serious doubt on this Ethiopian origin theory. In 1995 Dieudonné Gnammankou outlined a strong case that "Lagon" SONY VAIO VGN NR185E Keyboard
was a town located on the southern side of Lake Chad, now in northern Cameroon. However, there is no conclusive evidence for either theory.[9][10][12][13][14][15] After education in France as a military engineer, Abram Gannibal became governor of Reval and eventually Général en Chef (the third most senior army rank) in charge of the building of sea forts and canals in Russia. ACER 9J.N1H82.01D Keyboard
Born in Moscow, Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen. By the time he finished school as part of the first graduating class of the prestigiousImperial Lyceum in Tsarskoe Selo near Saint Petersburg, HP Pavilion dv7-2185dx CPU Fan
his talent was already widely recognized within the Russian literary scene. After school, Pushkin plunged into the vibrant and raucous intellectual youth culture of the capital, Saint Petersburg. In 1820 he published his first long poem, Ruslan and Lyudmila, amidst much controversy about its subject and style. HP Pavilion dv7-3125eo CPU Fan
Pushkin gradually became committed to social reform and emerged as a spokesman for literary radicals. This angered the government, and led to his transfer from the capital (1820). He went to the Caucasus and to the Crimea, then to Kamenka and Chişinău, where he became a Freemason.
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He was inspired by the Greek Revolution and when the war against the Ottoman Turks broke out he kept a diary recording the events of the great national uprising.
He stayed in Chişinău until 1823 and wrote two Romantic poems which brought him wide acclaim; The Captive of the Caucasus and The Fountain of Bakhchisaray. IHP 606013-001 CPU Fan
n 1823 Pushkin moved to Odessa, where he again clashed with the government, which sent him into exile on his mother's rural estate of Mikhailovskoe (near Pskov) from 1824 to 1826.[16]
In Mikhailovskoe, Pushkin wrote nostalgic love poems which had been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, wife of Malorossia'sGeneral-Governor.[17] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E120 Keyboard
Then Pushkin continued work on his verse-novel Eugene Onegin.
In Mikhailovskoe, in 1825, Pushkin wrote the poem To*** (I keep in mind that magic moment...). It is generally believed that he dedicated this poem to Anna Kern, but there are other opinions. Poet Mikhail Dudin believes that the poem has been dedicated to the serf Olga Kalashnikova.[18] IBM 42T3671 Keyboard
Pushkinist Kira Victorova believes that the poem has been dedicated to the Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna.[19] Vadim Nikolayev, argues that the idea about the Empress is marginal and refuses to discuss it, while trying to prove that poem had been dedicated to Tatyana Larina, the heroine of Eugene Onegin[18] HP 519265-001 Keyboard
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Authorities allowed Pushkin to visit Tsar Nicholas I to petition for his release, which he obtained. Insurgents however, in theDecembrist Uprising (1825) in Saint Petersburg, had kept some of Pushkin's earlier political poems, and he quickly found himself under the strict control of government censors, unable to travel or publish at will. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Keyboard
During that same year (1825), Pushkin also wrote what would become his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov, while at his mother's estate. He could not however, gain permission to publish it until five years later. The original and uncensored version of the drama was not staged until 2007. ACER TravelMate 6292 Keyboard
Around 1825-1829 he met and befriended the Polish poet, Adam Mickiewicz, during exile in central Russia.[20] 1829 he travelled through the Caucasus to Erzurum to visit friends fighting in the Russian army during Russo-Turkish War (1828–29).[21] TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s1196 Keyboard
Around 1828, Pushkin met Natalya Goncharova, then 16 years old and one of the most talked-about beauties of Moscow. After much hesitation, Natalya accepted a proposal of marriage from Pushkin in April 1830, but not before she received assurances that the tsarist government had no intentions to persecute the libertarian poet. DELL NSK-D8001 Keyboard
Later, Pushkin and his wife Natalya Goncharova, became regulars of court society. They officially became engaged on 6 May 1830, and sent out wedding invitations. Due to an outbreak of cholera and other circumstances, the wedding was delayed for a year. SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/R Keyboard
The ceremony took place on 18 February 1831 (Old Style) in the Great Ascension Church on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow. When the Tsar gave Pushkin the lowest court title, the poet became enraged, HP Pavilion dv6-3045eo Keyboard
feeling that the Tsar intended to humiliate him by implying that Pushkin was being admitted to court not on his own merits but solely so that his wife, who had many admirers including the Tsar himself, could properly attend court balls. Lenovo 3000 G530 4151 Keyboard
In the year 1831, during the period of Pushkin's growing literary influence, he met one of Russia's other great early writers,Nikolai Gogol. After reading Gogol's 1831–1832 volume of short stories Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka, Pushkin supported him and would feature some of Gogol's most famous short stories in the magazine The Contemporary, which he founded in 1836. DELL 0PVDG3 Keyboard
By 1837, Pushkin was falling into greater and greater debt and faced scandalous rumors that his wife had embarked on a love affair. In response, the poet challenged Natalya's alleged lover, her brother in-law Georges d'Anthès, to a duel which left both men injured. Shot through the spleen, Pushkin died two days later. His last home is now a museum. TOSHIBA PK130260100 Keyboard
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The Tsarist administration, fearing a political demonstration at his funeral, had it moved to a smaller location and restricted attendance to close relatives and friends.[citation needed] The poet's body was taken secretly at midnight and buried on his mother's estate. ACER Aspire 2920-5A2G25Mi Keyboard
Critics consider many of his works masterpieces, such as the poem The Bronze Horseman and the drama The Stone Guest, a tale of the fall of Don Juan. His poetic short drama "Mozart and Salieri" was the inspiration for Peter Shaffer's Amadeus. Pushkin himself preferred his verse novel Eugene Onegin, which he wrote over the course of his life and which, ACER AEZU2R00010 Keyboard
starting a tradition of great Russian novels, follows a few central characters but varies widely in tone and focus.
"Onegin" is a work of such complexity that, while only about a hundred pages long, translator Vladimir Nabokov needed two full volumes of material to fully render its meaning in English. Because of this difficulty in translation, Pushkin's verse remains largely unknown to English readers. Even so, Pushkin has profoundly influenced western writers like Henry James.[23] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-215DX Keyboard
Pushkin's works also provided fertile ground for Russian composers. Glinka's Ruslan and Lyudmila is the earliest important Pushkin-inspired opera, and a landmark in the tradition of Russian music. Tchaikovsky's operas Eugene Onegin (1879) and The Queen of Spades (1890) became perhaps better known outside of Russia than Pushkin's own works of the same name. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4050 Keyboard
Mussorgsky's monumental Boris Godunov (two versions, 1868-9 and 1871-2) ranks as one of the very finest and most original of Russian operas. Other Russian operas based on Pushkin include Dargomyzhsky's Rusalka and The Stone Guest; Rimsky-Korsakov's Mozart and Salieri, Tale of Tsar Saltan, and The Golden Cockerel; HP 519265-001 Keyboard
Cui's Prisoner of the Caucasus, Feast in Time of Plague, and The Captain's Daughter; Tchaikovsky's Mazeppa; Rachmaninov's one-act operas Aleko (based on The Gypsies) and The Miserly Knight; Stravinsky's Mavra, and Nápravník's Dubrovsky. HP G42-415DX Keyboard
Additionally, ballets and cantatas, as well as innumerable songs have been set to Pushkin's verse (including even his French-language poems, in Isabelle Aboulker's song cycle "Caprice étrange"). Suppé, Leoncavallo and Malipiero,have also based operas on his works.[24] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Keyboard
The Desire of Glory, which has been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, was set to music by David Tukhmanov (Vitold Petrovsky — The Desire of Glory onYouTube), as well as Keep Me, Mine Talisman, — by Alexander Barykin (Alexander Barykin — Keep Me, Mine Talisman on YouTube) and later by Tukhmanov. HP Mini 210-1109TU Keyboard
Pushkin is usually credited with developing Russian literature. Not only is he seen as having originated the highly nuanced level of language which characterizes Russian literature after him, but he is also credited with substantially augmenting the Russian lexicon. Where he found gaps in the Russian vocabulary, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315Z Keyboard
he devised calques. His rich vocabulary and highly sensitive style are the foundation for modern Russian literature. His talent set up new records for development of the Russian language and culture. He became the father of Russian literature in the 19th century, marking the highest achievements of 18th century and the beginning of literary process of the 19th century. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Keyboard
Alexander Pushkin introduced Russia to all the European literary genres as well as a great number of West European writers. He brought natural speech and foreign influences to create modern poetic Russian. HP AEUT5U00010 Keyboard
Though his life was brief, he left examples of nearly every literary genre of his day: lyric poetry, narrative poetry, the novel, the short story, the drama, the critical essay, and even the personal letter. HP Pavilion G6-1227TU Keyboard
Pushkin's work as a journalist marked the birth of Russian magazine culture which included him devising and contributing heavily to one of the most influential literary magazines of the 19th century, the Sovremennik (The Contemporary, or Современник). HP Mini 110-3004tu Keyboard
Pushkin inspired the folk tales and genre pieces of other authors: Leskov, Esenin, and Gorky. His use of Russian language formed the basis of the style of novelists Ivan Turgenev, Ivan Goncharov, and Leo Tolstoy, as well as that of subsequent lyric poets such as Mikhail Lermontov. SONY V072078BS1 Keyboard
Pushkin was analyzed by Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol, his successor and pupil, and the great Russian critic Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky who has also produced the fullest and deepest critical study of Pushkin's work, which still retains much of its relevance. SONY VAIO VGN-NR11M/S Keyboard
In 1986, a book entitled Secret Journal 1836–1837 was published by a Minneapolis publishing house (M.I.P. Company), claiming to be the decoded content of anencrypted private journal kept by Pushkin. Promoted with few details about its contents, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Keyboard
and touted for many years as being 'banned in Russia', it was an erotic novel narrated from Pushkin's perspective. Some mail-order publishers still carry the work under its fictional description. ACER Extensa 5635Z Keyboard
In 2001 it was first published in Moscow by Ladomir Publishing House which created a scandal. In 2006 a bilingual Russian-English edition was published in Russia by Retro Publishing House. Now published in 25 countries. Staged in Paris in 2006.[26] In 2011 new editions were published in France by Belfond,[27] in Spain by Funambulista[28] and in the USA by M.I.P. Company.[26] Lenovo 45N2106 Keyboard
The first academic publication of the Secret Journal and Parapushkinistika in one volume [29] was published in 2013 by M.I.P. Company. Adam Smith (5 June 1723 OS (16 June 1723 NS) – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment,[1] Smith is best known for two classic works: Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E525 Keyboard
The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is cited as the "father of modern economics" and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today.[2] HP Pavilion DV7-3060us Keyboard
Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was one of the first students to benefit from scholarships set up by fellow Scot, John Snell. After graduating, HP Pavilion DV3000 Keyboard
he delivered a successful series of public lectures at the University of Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life, ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Keyboard
he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of classicalfree market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, HP G42-415DX Keyboard
he expounded upon how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Keyboard
In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time.[3] Former UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, it is said, used to carry a copy of the book in her handbag.[4] DELL Inspiron M5030 Keyboard
Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife, in Scotland. His father, also of the same name, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet(senior solicitor), advocate, and prosecutor (Judge Advocate) and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy.[5] In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry, also in Fife. HP 519265-001 Keyboard
His father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow.[6] The date of Smith's baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723,[7] and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth,[5] Lenovo 45N2106 Keyboard
which is unknown. Although few events in Smith's early childhood are known, the Scottish journalist John Rae, Smith's biographer, recorded that Smith was abducted by gypsies at the age of three and released when others went to rescue him.[N 1] Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions.[9] HP 365485-001 Keyboard
He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period"[8]—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, and writing.[9] Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson.[9] DELL Vostro 1014 Keyboard
Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition.[10] FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 Keyboard
Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, which he found intellectually stifling.[11] In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 Keyboard
Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it.[8][12][13] FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Keyboard
According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework."[14] Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library.[15] When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters.[16] GATEWAY V030946FS1 US Keyboard
Near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown.[17] He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.[17][18] SONY 148738121 Keyboard
In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, DELL PVDG3 Keyboard
which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England.[13] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Keyboard
Adam Smith's discontent at Oxford might be in part due to the absence of his beloved teacher in Glasgow, Francis Hutcheson. Hutcheson was well regarded as one of the most prominent lecturers at the University of Glasgow in his day and earned the approbation of students, colleagues, DELL Vostro 3350 Keyboard
and even ordinary residents with the fervor and earnestness of his orations (which he sometimes opened to the public). His lectures endeavored not merely to teach philosophy but to make his students embody that philosophy in their lives, appropriately acquiring the epithet, the preacher of philosophy. Unlike Smith, Hutcheson was not a system builder; DELL Precision M4500 Keyboard
rather it was his magnetic personality and method of lecturing that so influenced his students and caused the greatest of those to reverentially refer to him as "the never to be forgotten Hutcheson" – a title that Smith in all his correspondence used to describe only two people, his good friend David Hume and influential mentor Francis Hutcheson.[19] HP Pavilion dv6-3040sp Keyboard
In 1750, he met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. In their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion, Smith and Hume shared closer intellectual and personal bonds than with other important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.[23] HP Pavilion dv7-6107tx CPU Fan
In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses, and in 1752 Smith was elected a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, having been introduced to the society by Lord Kames. Dell Vostro 3350 CPU Fan
When the head of Moral Philosophy died the next year, Smith took over the position.[22] He worked as an academic for the next thirteen years, which he characterized as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honorable period [of his life]".[24] Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan
Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. Smith defined "mutual sympathy" as the basis of moral sentiments. TOSHIBA Mini NB 300 Series Keyboard
He based his explanation, not on a special "moral sense" as the Third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on mutual sympathy, a term best captured in modern parlance by the twentieth-century concept of empathy, the capacity to recognize feelings that are being experienced by another being. SONY VGN-FE28H Keyboard
Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith became so popular that many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith.[25] DELL Latitude E5500 Keyboard
After the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals.[26] For example, Smith lectured that the cause of increase in national wealth is labor, rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver, which is the basis for mercantilism, the economic theory that dominated Western European economic policies at the time.[25] HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Keyboard
In 1762, the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained an offer from Charles Townshend – who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume – to tutor his stepson, TOSHIBA Equium A100 Series Keyboard
Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith then resigned from his professorship to take the tutoring position, and he subsequently attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students because he resigned in the middle of the term, but his students refused.[27] SONY VAIO VGN-AR570 Keyboard
Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Scott, during which time he educated Scott on a variety of subjects – such as proper Polish.[27] He was paid £300 per year (plus expenses) along with a £300 per year pension; roughly twice his former income as a teacher.[27] Smith first travelled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for one and a half years.[27] DELL Vostro 3350 Keyboard
According to his own account, he found Toulouse to be somewhat boring, having written to Hume that he "had begun to write a book to pass away the time".[27] After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva, where Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire.[28] ACER Aspire 7736ZG Keyboard
From Geneva, the party moved to Paris. Here Smith came to know several great intellectual leaders of the time; invariably having an effect on his future works. This list included: Benjamin Franklin,[29] Turgot, Jean D'Alembert, André Morellet, Helvétius, and, notably, François Quesnay, the head of the Physiocratic school.[30] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Keyboard
So impressed with his ideas[31] Smith considered dedicating The Wealth of Nations to him – had Quesnay not died beforehand.[32] Physiocrats were opposed to mercantilism, the dominating economic theory of the time. Illustrated in their motto Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même! (Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!). HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Keyboard
They were also known to have declared that only agricultural activity produced real wealth; merchants and industrialists (manufacturers) did not.[29] This however, did not represent their true school of thought, but was a mere "smoke screen" manufactured to hide their actual criticisms of the nobility and church; arguing that they made up the only real clients of merchants.[33] HP 517865-031 Keyboard
The wealth of France was virtually destroyed by Louis XIV and Louis XV to ruinous wars,[34] by aiding the American insurgents against the British, and perhaps most destructive (in terms of public perceptions) was what was seen as the excessive consumption of goods and services deemed to have no economic contribution – unproductive labour. Lenovo 0A62039 Keyboard
Assuming that nobility and church are essentially detractors from economic growth, the feudal system of agriculture in France was the only sector important to maintain the wealth of the nation. Given that the English economy of the day yielded an income distribution that stood in contrast to that which existed in France, DELL Vostro A860 Keyboard
Smith concluded that the teachings and beliefs of Physiocrats were, "with all [their] imperfections [perhaps], the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy".[35] Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX CPU Fan
The distinction between productive versus unproductive labour – the physiocratic classe steril – was a predominant issue in the development and understanding of what would become classical economic theory. IBM 41W5269 CPU Fan
In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter.[29] Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus.[36] There he befriended Henry Moyes, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. As well as teaching Moyes, HP Pavilion dv6-2057eo CPU Fan
Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and Thomas Reid in the young man's education.[37] In May 1773, Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London,[38] and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775.[39] The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out its first edition in only six months.[40] HP Pavilion dv7-1135nr CPU Fan
In 1778, Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Panmure House in Edinburgh's Canongate.[41]Five years later, as a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh when it received its royal charter, he automatically became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,[42] IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 CPU Fan
and from 1787 to 1789 he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow.[43] He died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness and was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard.[44] On his death bed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.[45] Toshiba Satellite A100-02M CPU Fan
Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, and the pioneering geologist James Hutton.[46] Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication.[47] ACER Aspire 5730Z Series CPU Fan
He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects.[46]
Smith's library went by his will to David Douglas, Toshiba Satellite P300-1FN CPU Fan
Lord Reston (son of his cousin Colonel Robert Douglas of Strathendry, Fife), who lived with Smith. It was eventually divided between his two surviving children, Cecilia Margaret (Mrs. Cunningham) and David Anne (Mrs. Bannerman). On the death of her husband, the Rev. W. B. Cunningham of Prestonpans in 1878, Mrs. Cunningham sold some of the books. HP G42-415DX CPU Fan
The remainder passed to her son, Professor Robert Oliver Cunningham of Queen's College, Belfast, who presented a part to the library of Queen's College. After his death the remaining books were sold. On the death of Mrs. Bannerman in 1879 her portion of the library went intact to the New College (of the Free Church), Edinburgh. HP Pavilion dv7-4177nr CPU Fan
Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death at his request.[47] He never married,[49] and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before his own death.[50] HP 580718-001 CPU Fan
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Smith was described by several of his contemporaries and biographers as comically absent-minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait, and a smile of "inexpressible benignity".[51] He was known to talk to himself,[45] a habit that began during his childhood when he would smile in rapt conversation with invisible companions.[52] Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan
He also had occasional spells of imaginary illness,[45] and he is reported to have had books and papers placed in tall stacks in his study.[52] According to one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory, and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he needed help to escape.[53] SONY Vaio VPC-EB4X1E/BQ CPU Fan
He is also said to have put bread and butter into a teapot, drunk the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he ever had. According to another account, Smith distractedly went out walking in his nightgown and ended up 15 miles (24 km) outside of town, before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.[52][53] HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
James Boswell who was a student of Smith's at Glasgow University, and later knew him at the Literary Club, says that Smith thought that speaking about his ideas in conversation might reduce the sale of his books, and so his conversation was unimpressive. According to Boswell, he once told Sir Joshua Reynolds that 'he made it a rule when in company never to talk of what he understood'.[54] HP Pavilion tx2510us CPU Fan
Smith, who is reported to have been an odd-looking fellow, has been described as someone who "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment".[13] Smith is said to have acknowledged his looks at one point, saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books."[13] ACER Aspire 7112WSMi CPU Fan
Smith rarely sat for portraits,[55] so almost all depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory. The best-known portraits of Smith are the profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay.[56] The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely on Tassie's medallion.[57] Toshiba GDM610000277 CPU Fan
There has been considerable scholarly debate about the nature of Smith's religious views. Smith's father had shown a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland.[58] The fact that Adam Smith received the Snell Exhibition suggests that he may have gone to Oxford with the intention of pursuing a career in the Church of England.[59] ASUS F6VE Keyboard
Anglo-American economist Ronald Coase has challenged the view that Smith was a deist, based on the fact that Smith's writings never explicitly invoke God as an explanation of the harmonies of the natural or the human worlds.[60] According to Coase, DELL NSK-DB301 Keyboard
though Smith does sometimes refer to the "Great Architect of the Universe", later scholars such as Jacob Viner have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God",[61] HP Pavilion dv6-3057tx Keyboard
a belief for which Coase finds little evidence in passages such as the one in the Wealth of Nations in which Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature", such as "the generation, the life, growth and dissolution of plants and animals", DELL Vostro PP38L Keyboard
has led men to "enquire into their causes", and that "superstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods. Philosophy afterwards endeavoured to account for them, from more familiar causes, or from such as mankind were better acquainted with than the agency of the gods".[61] HP Pavilion DV7-3057nr Keyboard
Some other authors argue that Smith's social and economic philosophy is inherently theological and that his entire model of social order is logically dependent on the notion of God's action in nature.[62] TOSHIBA Satellite l20-135 Keyboard
Smith was also a close friend and later the executor of David Hume, who was commonly characterized in his own time as an atheist.[63] The publication in 1777 of Smith's letter to William Strahan, in which he described Hume's courage in the face of death in spite his irreligiosity, attracted considerable controversy.[64] Toshiba Satellite L30-10X CPU Fan
In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He continued making extensive revisions to the book, up until his death.[N 2] AlthoughThe Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, it is believed that Smith himself considered The Theory of Moral Sentiments to be a superior work.[66] Toshiba Satellite A300-21H CPU Fan
In the work, Smith critically examines the moral thinking of his time, and suggests that conscience arises from social relationships.[67] His goal in writing the work was to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements, SONY Vaio VGN-FS415M CPU Fan
in spite of man's natural inclinations towards self-interest. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy, in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and the morality of their own behavior.[68] HP Pavilion dv6-3109ca CPU Fan
Scholars have traditionally perceived a conflict between The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations; the former emphasizes sympathy for others, while the latter focuses on the role of self-interest.[69] In recent years, however, some scholars[70][71][72] of Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists.[73] HP Pavilion dv9547cl CPU Fan
They claim that in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathize with them. Rather than viewing The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations as presenting incompatible views of human nature, HP G42-380LA CPU Fan
some Smith scholars regard the works as emphasizing different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. Furthermore, Ekelund and Hebert argue that self-interest is present Toshiba Satellite P300 CPU Fan
in both works and that "in the former, sympathy is the moral faculty that holds self-interest in check, whereas in the latter, competition is the economic faculty that restrains self-interest."[74] IBM ThinkPad T43P-2668 CPU Fan
There is a fundamental disagreement between classical and neoclassical economists about the central message of Smith's most influential work: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Neoclassical economists emphasise Smith'sinvisible hand,[75] HP Pavilion dv7-4283cl CPU Fan
a concept mentioned in the middle of his work – Book IV, Chapter II – and classical economists believe that Smith stated his programme for promoting the "wealth of nations" in the first sentences. HP COMPAQ 2510P Series CPU Fan
Smith used the term "the invisible hand" in "History of Astronomy"[76] referring to "the invisible hand of Jupiter" and twice – each time with a different meaning – the term "an invisible hand": in The Theory of Moral Sentiments[77] (1759) HP Pavilion dv6-3126ea CPU Fan
and in The Wealth of Nations[78] (1776). This last statement about "an invisible hand" has been interpreted as "the invisible hand" in numerous ways. It is therefore important to read the original: TOSHIBA Satellite M640-BT2N23 Keyboard
As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, DELL NSK-D8001 Keyboard
indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, SONY VGN-FE41S Keyboard
as in many other eases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. TOSHIBA 6037B0028502 Keyboard
I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it. DELL Inspiron 1564 Keyboard
Those who regard that statement as Smith's central message also quote frequently Smith's dictum:[79]
It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages. HP Pavilion DV7-2173cl Keyboard
Smith's statement about the benefits of "an invisible hand" is certainly meant to answer[citation needed] Mandeville's contention that "Private Vices ... may be turned into Public Benefits".[80] It shows Smith's belief that when an individual pursues his self-interest, he indirectly promotes the good of society. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 Keyboard
Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, ACER Aspire 1690 Keyboard
he was wary of businessmen and warned of their "conspiracy against the public or in some other contrivance to raise prices".[81] Again and again, Smith warned of the collusive nature of business interests, which may form cabals or monopolies, HP 519265-001 Keyboard
fixing the highest price "which can be squeezed out of the buyers".[82] Smith also warned that a business-dominated political system would allow a conspiracy of businesses and industry against consumers, with the former scheming to influence politics and legislation. FUJITSU Lifebook E8210 Keyboard
Smith states that the interest of manufacturers and merchants "...in any particular branch of trade or manufactures, is always in some respects different from, and even opposite to, that of the public... HP Pavilion DV7-3183cl Keyboard
The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention."[83] FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Keyboard
The neoclassical interest in Smith's statement about "an invisible hand" originates in the possibility to see it as a precursor ofneoclassical economics and its General Equilibrium concept. Samuelson's "Economics" refers 6 times to Smith's "invisible hand". Compaq Presario CQ62-358TU Keyboard
To emphasize this relation, Samuelson[84] quotes Smith's "invisible hand" statement putting "general interest" where Smith wrote "public interest". Samuelson[85] concluded: "Smith was unable to prove the essence of his invisible-hand doctrine. Indeed, until the 1940s no one knew how to prove, even to state properly, the kernel of truth in this proposition about perfectly competitive market." TOSHIBA 9Z.N4WSC.001 Keyboard
Very differently, classical economists see in Smith's first sentences his programme to promote "The Wealth of Nations". Taking up the physiocratical concept of the economy as a circular process means that to have growth the inputs of period2 must excel the inputs of period1. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Keyboard
Therefore the outputs of period1 not used or usable as input of period2 are regarded as unproductive labour as they do not contribute to growth. This is what Smith had learned in France with Quesnay. HP Pavilion DV6-1350us Keyboard
To this French insight that unproductive labour should be pushed back to use more labour productively, Smith added his own proposal, that productive labour should be made even more productive by deepening the division of labour. Deepening the division of labour means under competition lower prices and thereby extended markets. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl Keyboard
Extended markets and increased production lead to a new step of reorganising production and inventing new ways of producing which again lower prices, etc., etc.. Smith's central message is therefore that under dynamic competition a growth machine secures "The Wealth of Nations". It predicted England's evolution as the workshop of the World, underselling all its competitors. The opening sentences of the "Wealth of Nations" summarize this policy: HP Pavilion DV7-2177cl Keyboard
Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, SONY VAIO VPC-F12 Keyboard
probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Smith. Other works, including some published posthumously, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 Keyboard
include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms(1763) (first published in 1896); and Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795).[88] The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, HP Pavilion dv6-3007tu Keyboard
Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.[89] SONY VAIO VGN-NW35E/W Keyboard
In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time.[3]Former UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, it is said, used to carry a copy of the book in her handbag.[90] HP G62-458TX CPU FAN
In light of the arguments put forward by Smith and other economic theorists in Britain, academic belief in mercantalism began to decline in England in the late 18th century. During the Industrial Revolution, Britain embraced free trade and Smith's laissez-faire economics, and via the British Empire, HP G62-459TU CPU FAN
used its power to spread a broadly liberal economic model around the world, characterized by open markets, and relatively barrier free domestic and international trade.[91]
George Stigler attributes to Smith "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics". It is that, under competition, owners of resources (for example labor, HP G62-459TX CPU FAN
land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in equilibrium for all uses, adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training, trust, hardship, and unemployment.[92] HP G62-460SD CPU FAN
Paul Samuelson finds in Smith's pluralist use of supply and demand as applied to wages, rents, profit a valid and valuable anticipation of the general equilibrium modeling of Walras a century later. HP G62-460SJ CPU FAN
Smith's allowance for wage increases in the short and intermediate term from capital accumulation and invention added a realism missed later by Malthus, Ricardo, and Karl Marx in their propounding a rigid subsistence–wage theory of labour supply.[93] HP G62-460SO CPU FAN
On the other hand, Joseph Schumpeter dismissed Smith's contributions as unoriginal, saying "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, HP G62-460SS CPU FAN
had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along."[94] HP G62-460ST CPU FAN
Classical economists presented competing theories of those of Smith, termed the "labour theory of value". Later Marxian economics descending from classical economics also use Smith's labour theories, in part. HP G62-454SF CPU FAN
The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Capital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital.[95][96] HP G62-454EF CPU FAN
The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern contention of neoclassical economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing. HP G62-454TU CPU FAN
The body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or "marginalism" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier, broader term "political economy" used by Smith.[97][98] HP G62-454TX CPU FAN
This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences.[99] Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. HP G62-455SX CPU FAN
It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.[100] HP G62-455TX CPU FAN
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